Parts one and two of this series have focused on yeast-centric fermentation. Part one covered yeast mechanics, congeners, and differences between the cerevisiae and pombe yeast species. Part two covered stressing pombe in a high-acid fermentation environment, along with dunder and cane acid.

In part 3, below, we’ll investigate a different type of fermentation — bacterial(!) that creates more complex acids and esters emblematic of high-congener rums.

Baby Got Bac(teria)

Like yeast, bacteria are live microorganisms that consume sugar and other organic compounds in a rum mash and produce congeners. If both are present in a fermentation, the yeast and bacteria compete for the available food supply, including the sugar.

Just as different yeast species emit different types and ratios of congeners, there are many species of bacteria. In part 2, I mentioned Acetobacter aceti, which consumes ethanol molecules and emits acetic acid. Other bacterial species, such as Clostridium and Bacillus, can produce congeners that are much more noxious than acetic acid.

In very general terms, yeast consumes sugar and produces congeners, skewed towards alcohol, particularly ethanol. In contrast, when bacteria consume sugar, the congeners they emit skew towards acids. Not just acetic acid, but also more complex chain acids like propionic, butyric, valeric, and caproic acid. Butyric acid smells of vomit and rancid butter; caproic brings notes of goat and sweaty gym socks. Lovely stuff, right?

Most large-scale rum producers take preventive measures to prevent bacteria from participating in fermentation. The congeners (especially the acids) that bacteria create aren’t desirable in these types of rum, and the ethanol yield also suffers. Closed-tank fermentation, stringent tank cleaning after each fermentation, and pasteurizing the molasses before adding yeast are all ways to keep bacteria in check.

However, some rum makers actively encourage the coexistence of bacteria and yeast during fermentation. At a minimum, a long-running, open tank fermentation will likely experience some bacterial activity along the way. But there are also ways to foster bacterial activity beyond leaving things to chance.

The majority, if not all, of Jamaica’s rum distilleries intentionally allow bacteria in certain fermentations. In particular, those destined for heavy, pot-distilled marks. Outside Jamaica, some of the better-known distilleries that use bacterial fermentation for certain rums are River Antoine (Grenada), Le Galion (Martinique), and West Indies Rum Distillery in Barbados. A future article will cover one of these in more detail.

Having introduced the concept of concurrent yeast and bacterial fermentations, let’s now examine an even more unusual trick that several Jamaican distilleries have up their sleeve.

What the Muck?

You may recall from previous parts of this series that the primary way to create more complex esters—the sort not found in normal rum fermentations—is to produce more complex alcohol and acid molecules. These acids and alcohols can then combine into longer-chain esters. Generally speaking, pombe yeast (see part 2) creates higher (“fusel”) alcohols, while bacteria like Clostridium excel at creating longer-chain acids.

While longer chain acid and alcohol creation can occur in the same fermentation, they don’t necessarily need to.

Picture this: two fermentations running in parallel — one yeast-based, the other bacterial. While yeast does its work, a colony of bacteria is fed and maintained for years on end. A bacterial “sourdough starter” from hell, so to speak. This colony lives in a pit, consuming sugar, dead yeast cells, and other organic matter in a thick, putrefying slurry.

The stratospheric bacterial levels in the pit create a huge reservoir of more complex acids, including the horrifyingly pungent propionic, butyric, valeric, and caproic acids noted earlier. Meanwhile, yeast strains living within the pit also produce alcohol molecules that combine with these acids to form esters. Not the oh-so-basic ethyl acetate, but more complex esters that are rarely found in traditional yeast fermentations. For reasons lost to time, the Jamaican distillers call this sludge “muck”, and it lives within a “muck pit”.

How is muck used? To answer this, we must return to the yeast-based fermentation. After fermentation ends, it could be distilled. But rather than distilling it immediately, a healthy slug of ester-rich muck is added to completed yeast fermentation. Adding muck introduces previously-formed esters (from the muck pit) that a normal fermentation creates very little of.

Only afterward is this composite wash distilled. The resulting distillate naturally includes these more complex esters. Why isn’t the muck initially added to the mash like dunder and cane acid are? Adding muck while the yeast is working would decrease alcohol yield.

Only a few Jamaican distilleries use muck, and only for certain marks they make. We’ll look at this later.

Making Muck

Naturally, you’re probably wondering about how to make muck. As you might imagine, the Jamaican distillers who work with muck are loath to describe in detail. Call it Jamaican rum’s ultimate trade secret.

Here’s what we do know. In 1905, H.H. Cousins, a research scientist in Jamaica, along with fermentation chemist Charles Allan, studied all aspects of Jamaican rum production from an organic chemistry perspective. Here’s Allan’s description of muck:

The components of the ‘ muck hole’ are the thicker portion of the dunder from the Still, the lees from the retorts and cane trash and other adventitious matter which from time to time finds its way into this receptacle.

Sadly, there is no further description of this adventitious matter. However, we do know that bacteria-rich soil, including Clostridium, is part of the equation. There is also evidence that jackfruit and other indigenous tropical fruits are part of the mix. (Cyril Weglarz, of DuRhum notes bananas, jackfruit and sapodilla.)

In a 2021 interview I recorded with Hampden Estates, the slides note:

The muck pit contains the thick matter deposited from the dunder and dead wash bottom, to which cane trash is added. Muck consists to a large extent of dead yeast so is full of nitrogen.

Note: dead-wash bottoms contain a large amount of dead yeast cells from fermentation. There is no evidence of goat heads, however. Given the above, would it matter if there were?

As an interesting modern-day aside, the 2024 Jamaica rum GI revisions added the following phrase to the fermentation section:

Locally grown bacterial & yeast cultures can be used in the production of Jamaica Rum.

The original 2016 had nothing like this. I’m told that the 2024 addition was made to explicitly allow muck, something that the 2016 GI, as written, appeared to exclude.

Who’s using Muck

Three Jamaican distilleries are known to use muck for some of their marks. Generally speaking, it’s only the highest ester “continental” marks.

To my knowledge, only Long Pond has confirmed which of their marks use muck:

• LPS

• STC♥E

• TECA

• TECB

• TECC

Hampden uses muck. If I had to guess, the marks I’d pick would be:

• HLCF

• ◆H

• HGML

• C ◆H

• DOK

New Yarmouth also uses muck. My guess for their marks:

• NYE/HM

• NYE/RH

• NYE/WM

• NYE/WK

My Jamaican Rum Marques Roundup Page contains the most complete known list of marks for all six Jamaican distilleries.

What’s Next?

The first three parts of this series covered the pre-distillation aspects of high-congener marks. In part four, we’ll look at an unusual distillation trick that the Jamaicans have used for over a century. Distilleries outside Jamaica have also started using it. Stay tuned!

This is part two of a four-part deep dive into how funky, high-ester rums are created. There’s much more to it than just a particular yeast strain and a long fermentation.

Part 1 covers some baseline concepts that apply to all rum fermentation:

• Yeast does much more than consume sugar and produce ethanol. It also produces trace amounts of other categories of molecules, including acids, higher alcohols, esters, and aldehydes. For the sake of convenience in what follows, we’ll call them congeners. Or if you prefer, call them flavor compounds.

• The congeners created during fermentation are 99.9% responsible for the resulting aroma and flavor of unaged rum.

• What differentiates the various congeners from each other is the arrangement and number of the atoms within the molecule. Each type of molecule, e.g., ethyl butyrate, has its own distinctive aroma and flavor.

• Esters are formed when an alcohol molecule combines with an acid molecule.

• The liquid remaining after fermentation completes is a “soup” of ethanol, water, and the flavor molecules described above.

• There are many species and strains of yeast. Different yeast strains will create different soups, that is, different mixtures of flavor molecules.

• A yeast’s surrounding environment, including temperature and pH level, alters the ratio and types of flavor molecules that a yeast strain creates.

• The primary species of yeast used in rum fermentation is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, aka cerevisiae. The “underground punk rock” species of yeast is Schizosaccharomyces pombe, aka pombe.

In what follows, we’ll move beyond the usual yeast fermentation protocol that most rum makers use. While conventional fermentation can create flavorful rum, it can’t create the stratospheric levels of congeners exemplified by Jamaica’s “continental” rum styles and grand arôme rums made on Martinique and Réunion Island. For specific examples, see:

• Hampden HLCF and DOK

• Long Pond’s STC♥E

• and Savanna Lontan.

To achieve truly high congener levels, rum makers supercharge the fermentation process with additional ingredients that force the yeast to change the types and amounts of congeners it produces. Beyond just making more congeners, the resulting mix also contains congeners that a regular fermentation would have very little of.

Typical rum fermentations mostly make simple (“short-chain”) congeners. Supercharged fermentations contain much higher ratios of complex (“medium-chain”, “long-chain”) congeners. These medium- and long-chain flavor molecules give high-congener Jamaican rums, Grand Arôme rums, and other rums, such as River Antoine, their distinctive aromas and flavors.

You’re Stressing Me Out!

Much like humans act differently under stressful conditions, so do yeast cells. For yeast, stress (or lack thereof) is a function of various factors, including temperature, nutrient availability — they don’t live on sugar alone, pH level, and osmotic pressure. Vary these parameters during fermentation, and the yeast will adjust the amounts and ratios of the congeners it produces.

Here, I’ll limit the discussion to stress induced by low pH, or, in slightly less scientific terms, how acidic the fermenting mash is. If something acidic is added to the mash, both cerevisiae and pombe-type yeast will respond by producing more esters. Why so? By increasing the acid molecules in the mash soup, there’s more opportunity for yeast cells to combine the acid molecules with ethanol molecules (which the yeast makes) to create esters. Put another way, more acid gives yeast more ingredients to make more yummy esters, though the most complex congeners involve a different player we’ll meet later in the series.

However, cerevisiae strains are less resistant than pombe strains in more acidic environments (lower pH). A low pH level that might cause a pombe strain to break a sweat might immobilize or kill its cerevisiae strain cousin. For this reason, pombe yeast is much more prevalent in high-congener fermentations.

In short, the right yeast (pombe) plus additional acid in the mash recipe yields more esters. So, how do rum makers acidify their fermentation? We’re now ready to introduce dunder and cane acid into the discussion.

Dunder

Many misinformed books and articles have mythologized dunder as some sort of voodoo mystery ingredient. In reality, it’s just the waste liquid left over after distillation. When pot distilling, dunder is the liquid remaining in the kettle after the stripping run has finished. Column distillation also creates dunder, but that’s a different topic.

Given that fermented wash is over 90% water before distillation, it’s not surprising that what remains, i.e., dunder, is also mostly water. Also present, albeit in much smaller quantities, are acids, higher alcohols, dead yeast cells, and other assorted molecules.

In rum fermentation, dunder replaces some of the water that would otherwise be used. For instance, if a typical fermentation recipe calls for 1000 gallons of water, you might instead use 500 gallons of water and 500 gallons of dunder. Due to the acids in the dunder, the resulting mash will have a lower pH level than if only water were used. And with more acid molecules available to the yeast, more esters result! The acid in dunder also suppresses lactic bacteria, which produce lactic acid toxic to yeast cells.

Increased acidity isn’t the only benefit of dunder. The dead, decomposing yeast cells create nutrients that living yeast cells consume. As I said above, yeast does not live by sugar alone!

Jamaica isn’t unique in its use of dunder/vinasse/stillage. French rum makers in Martinique and Réunion use it to make grand arôme rums. And American sour mash bourbon? They’re also using dunder, although they’re more likely to call it stillage. Either way, they’re acidifying the fermentation using the waste liquid from prior distillations.

The word “dunder” is primarily used in a Caribbean context. Stillage and spent lees are common English language terms for it. Scotch whisky distillers call it pot ale. French-speaking cultures call it vinasse, and French rum makers use vinasse in the production of grand arôme.

Cane Acid

The other primary way of acidifying a yeast-driven fermentation goes by the somewhat concerning names of acid or cane acid. Rest assured, cane acid isn’t some industrially produced chemical compound. Rather, think of it as homespun sugarcane vinegar made on a larger scale—thousands of gallons at a time.

Cane acid starts as fresh-pressed sugarcane juice in a vat, along with cane trash, i.e., cane stalk remnants. Wild yeast cells living on the cane stalks initiate a fermentation process somewhat similar to that of a rhum agricole. But rather than distilling this liquid after fermentation finishes, it continues to sit. Eventually, ambient bacteria of the species Acetobacter aceti start consuming the ethanol and emitting acetic acid.

As with dunder, cane acid replaces an equivalent amount of water that would ordinarily be used in the mash. But unlike grocery store cane vinegar, which contains just water and acetic acid, the cane acid that Jamaica’s distilleries make also contributes wild yeast strains and pre-formed esters to the mash.

Part Two Wrap Up

Dunder and cane acid are both techniques to acidify a rum mash, which causes the yeast to emit more esters and, to a lesser extent, a different mix of esters and other congeners. Dunder and cane acid can be used individually or together in fermentations. Typically, high-congener fermentations use pombe yeast because it survives better than cerevisiae at lower pH (higher acidity).

Thus far in this series, I’ve focused on yeast-centric fermentation. However, there’s another path that produces the more complex acids and esters that are emblematic of high-congener rums. In part 3, we’ll take a turn towards the dark side — another organism that supports fermentation, yet is shunned by most distillers.

Sometimes my procrastination about starting to write subconsciously signals that I have more mental homework to do. So it was, while procrastinating over a story about a new high-ester rum, that I realized I needed to further hone my understanding of some nerdy, wonk fundamentals.

I’ve written quite a few stories here about rum aromas, flavors, and their associated chemistry. Still, in outlining how to approach this new rum, I realized my earlier writings had hand-waved past some important concepts. Back to the proverbial woodshed I went, forcing myself to head-on face dark corners I’d previously ignored. The result is a series of stories, starting with this one, that introduce basic fermentation chemistry for laypeople, then navigate through the techniques rum makers use to create extreme rums. To use a car analogy, how they turn a Toyota Camry into a top-fuel funny car.

What follows below establishes a baseline for how the majority of rum makers ferment their source material. Subsequent posts will explore how creating highly flavored, high-ester rums differs from mainstream rum making.

To start, let’s review a tiny bit of flavor chemistry to better understand what follows.

Flavor Basics

Fundamentally, the smell and taste of an unaged rum is the result of a soup of organic compounds generated during fermentation. This soup’s components are then filtered and concentrated via distillation.

When these organic compounds contact our nasal receptors and tongue, our nose and tongue send signals to our brain, which interprets them as smell and taste.

The primary organic compounds found in distilled spirits span several classes: acids, alcohols, esters, and aldehydes. Each class, e.g., alcohols, has subtypes that vary in molecular structure and complexity. For example, methanol and ethanol are both alcohols, but ethanol has more carbon and hydrogen atoms than methanol. As such, ethanol is “heavier” than methanol.

Here are four of the most molecularly simple alcohols:

Here are four of the most molecularly simple acids:

When an alcohol and an acid combine, they form an ester. Here are four typical esters you’d find in everyday, middle-of-the-road rums.

There will be no test on the above, but it is important to grasp that the flavor in distilled spirits derives from a complex stew of different organic compounds, including those above. Each organic compound is like an instrument in an orchestra, making its own contribution to the symphony your nose and tongue experience. (Yes, I’m purposefully omitting flavors induced by aging. That’s another story for another time.)

It’s also important to know that these compounds contribute nearly all of a spirit’s distinctive aroma and flavor character while making up less than 1% of its volume. 99% of a distilled spirit is either ethanol or water, and neither has a particularly strong aroma or flavor. The chemical difference between a bottle of Bacardi Superior and a bottle of Hampden HLCF would fit in a thimble with room to spare.

Now, where do all these organic compounds come from?

The Mighty Yeast Cell

When people first learn about rum, fermentation is usually described like this:

“Molasses and water are mixed, after yeast is added, the result is a fermenting mash. The yeast consumes the sugar and emits alcohol.”

While not incorrect, it dramatically undersells the story; it’s like saying Oppenheimer was a movie about a science project.

Yeast cells are microscopic superfactories squeezed into a single-cell organism. Inside their walls, they feed on sugar and other mash compounds and emit a mix of different flavor compounds along with ethanol. They even knit molecules together within the cell, turning the alcohol and acid molecules they previously made into esters.

Yeast cells also emit heat and carbon dioxide during fermentation. If you’ve ever wondered what makes bread dough rise, it’s carbon dioxide “bubbles” created by the yeast consuming sugars in the dough.

The types and amounts of organic compounds a yeast cell emits are influenced by its food source, i.e., the sugar molecules and other nutrients in the mash. Differences in the chemical composition of cane juice or molasses can cause yeast to emit a different mix of organic compounds. These differences are one aspect of a spirit’s terroir.

The environment where a yeast cell resides also influences the mix of organic compounds it emits. The temperature of the fermenting mash affects what the yeast creates. If the mash gets too warm, the yeast cells can die. (Remember, fermentation creates heat, and yeast can be responsible for its own death unless steps like cooling the mash are taken.)

Likewise, if the mash’s pH drops too low, the yeast may die — some strains are more tolerant of low pH than others. Even the ethanol the yeast emits can kill it if the mash ABV gets too high.

All that said, a bit of controlled stress in a yeast cell’s life can be a good thing, causing it to emit a more desirable mix of flavor compounds. We’ll look at this in a future installment of this series.

A Brief Burst of Biology and Organic Chemistry

Most rum makers use a yeast strain within a species called Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Here, we’ll call it cerevisiae for brevity. Within this species, you’ll find a variety of strains. Some strains are popular for champagne, others for beer, others for bread, and of course, rum.

The primary emission from cerevisiae yeast is ethanol, as you’d expect. As for the other organic compounds it creates, most are on the simpler and lighter end of the molecular spectrum: acids like acetic acid (vinegar), alcohols like propanol and isoamyl alcohol, and esters formed when those particular acids and alcohols combine. The signature esters produced by cerevisiae, including ethyl acetate and isoamyl acetate, give a typical rum its familiar fruity character.

To rephrase this more holistically, cerevisiae yeast produces aromas reminiscent of banana, honey, juicy fruit gum, and apple. Ethyl acetate, the most common ester in rum, smells lightly fruity at low concentrations but turns to solvent or nail polish remover aromas at higher concentrations. Anyone with experience drinking high-ester rums knows that note well.

The Reigning Champion

The vast majority of the rum world runs on a steady stream of S. cerevisiae yeast. Distilleries pick a strain they like and either carefully maintain it in their laboratories or purchase ready-made strains in dry form. Think a packet of Fleischmann’s Dry Yeast, but on a far larger scale! Yeast specialists like AB Biotek and Lallemand specialize in creating bulk and specialized yeast for distilleries around the globe.

With an eye towards consistency from batch to batch, a few rum makers heat their molasses and water before adding yeast. The heat kills any ambient yeast and bacteria, creating a very clean playing field for the cerevisiae yeast to work in.

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae species is the de facto commodity yeast used by most distilleries because it works quickly, is reliable, is well understood, and is readily available. It creates a consistent result, which large-scale rum makers prize.

The Dark Horse

If Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains are the global pop stars of yeast, the punk underground equivalent is Schizosaccharomyces pombe. We’ll call it pombe here for brevity. Taxonomically speaking, pombe is a different species from cerevisiae. A good analogy from the plant kingdom is oak tree vs a sunflower. While they share many common attributes, they are noticeably different in other aspects.

Among the differences is that pombe cells look and reproduce differently from cerevisiae cells. Cerevisiae reproduces by growing small “buds” that pop off and grow to full size, while pombe cells cleave in half, which is why they’re called fission yeast.

If both pombe and cerevisiae are given the same mash, and the resulting washes are chemically compared, we’d usually find different acid and alcohol profiles. Pombe-associated fermentations tend to push the resulting rum toward heavier, more complex aromas, including those coming from medium-chain fatty acids such as:

Similarly, pombe favors creating more complex alcohols, including:

If you’ve heard the terms higher alcohols or fusel alcohols, they are alcohols that are molecularly heavier than ethanol and contribute to spirits that are heavier, oily, and sometimes solventy. Pombe creates a greater percentage of higher alcohols (like the above) than cerevisiae.

Naturally, because pombe produces a different mix of acids and alcohols compared to cerevisiae, the ester profile also changes. Pombe fermentations create more of these esters:

In short, the more molecularly complex mix of organic compounds created by pombe creates a rum with intense tropical-fruit aromas like pineapple and overripe banana, along with a heavier, thicker mouthfeel.

Who’s using pombe yeast today? Jamaica’s rum makers are the flagship pombe users, but it pops up in other regions known for making wild, “weird”, and highly flavorful rums, including Martinique’s Le Galion. Beyond those known users, it’s plausible that Grenada’s River Antoine, Haiti’s clairin producers, and a few Mexican distilleries are also using pombe to some degree, though none have officially confirmed it.

As an aside for any distillers out there, AB Biotek recently released the first commercially available dry Pombe yeast targeted at rum makers:

While pombe yeast creates a heavier and more intense flavor profile, it comes with some operational downsides. While cerevisiae typically finishes fermentation in 1-3 days, pombe can take three or more times as long to complete, while yielding less alcohol. Nonetheless, the divine flavor of Jamaican and other rums makes this tradeoff worth it.

Conclusion

Wrapping things up for this initial installment, the above comparison of pombe and cerevisiae yeast assumes similar mashes and environmental conditions. However, pombe has a superpower that cerevisiae mostly lacks: when pombe cells are stressed in the right way, they turn on the flavor production afterburners. Cerevisiae responds to stress as well, but pombe is much more at home in the low-pH, bacteria-laced conditions associated with some heavy-rum fermentations.

That stress, along with another microbial actor, is where things get really weird, wild, and wonderful. Pombe yeast by itself can’t create high-ester flavor bombs like Hampden DOK or Long Pond TECC. Pombe is often the foundation of such rums, but only when paired with techniques you won’t find in regular rum making. The next installment in this series jumps headfirst into this topic.

A hearty thank you to Brett Steigerwaldt for reviewing the above for me prior to publishing.

The Caribbean rum family recently lost one of its most respected and enduring champions. Patrick Mayers of Barbados passed away on April 8th, 2026, at age 84. He leaves a legacy inseparable from the modern evolution of Caribbean rum.

When we look at today’s vibrant landscape of Caribbean rum producers, it’s easy to forget how uncertain things were in the latter half of the 20th century as the British colonial system came to an end. Newly independent nations such as Jamaica, Barbados, Guyana, Trinidad, and St. Lucia were striving to find their place in the global economy. At the time, most distilleries were largely invisible, selling bulk rum to blenders rather than building their own brands. Iconic brands that help define the category—El Dorado, Chairman’s Reserve, Foursquare, Worthy Park, Monymusk, and many more, simply didn’t exist.

To survive and ultimately thrive in this post-colonial era, the rum makers of CARICOM nations (mostly comprised of former British Caribbean colonies) pooled their individual resources to claim a seat at the global economic trade table. Unlike rum makers in Puerto Rico, the USVI, and the French Caribbean, which received tax breaks from their respective parent countries, CARICOM rum makers would have a decades-long journey to a level playing field, economically speaking.

Leading the way during a pivotal period were people like Patrick Mayers from Barbados, Yesu Persaud from Guyana, and Evon Brown from Jamaica. All headed major distilleries while also collaborating on issues of concern to rum makers in all CARICOM nations. It has been an honor for me to get to know each of them on a personal level and later interview them. A common thread in all our individual conversations was the deep respect and admiration they had for each other.

A Life in Rum

Patrick’s life extended well beyond rum, encompassing deep commitments to family, country, and community. Still, it is through the lens of rum that many of us came to know him.

Born during World War II, Patrick was the son of a Tate & Lyle employee. His own entry into the industry began as a rum store clerk at the West India Rum Refinery (WIRR), known today as the West Indies Rum Distillery, or Stade’s Rum Distillery.

At the time, WIRR was owned by Goddard Enterprises, a Barbados-based conglomerate with a stake in many island enterprises. Patrick rose quickly through Goddard’s ranks, including time as WIRR’s Managing Director, and was Goddard’s Deputy Managing Director when he retired.

During his tenure overseeing WIRR, several developments of lasting importance took place:

• The distillery was renamed the West Indies Rum Distillery.

• WIRR became a long-time supplier of rum to a then small brand called Malibu.

• WIRR acquired a one-third stake in National Rums of Jamaica.

Yet Patrick’s most consequential work may have come through his involvement with the West Indies Rum and Spirits Producers’ Association, aka WIRSPA. Founded in 1971, WIRSPA became the central forum through which CARICOM producers coordinated their efforts. Patrick became involved early and would go on to serve as Chairman three times, spanning a total of 13 years.

Those of a certain age may remember NAFTA and the CBI (Caribbean Basin Initiative). Patrick represented WIRSPA’s members in US Congressional hearings, as well as during Lomé Convention negotiations, a series of trade and aid agreements between the European Economic Community (EEC) and African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) nations.

But it was Patrick’s third term, from 1998-2007, that may be his biggest legacy in the rum domain. This term spanned the inception and early years of the Caribbean Rum Sector Programme. Utilizing European Union-provided funding, many iconic rum makers, including Appleton Estate, St. Lucia Distillers, Foursquare, Mount Gay, Worthy Park, Hampden Estate, and many more, upgraded their equipment and processes to more effectively compete as premium, branded rum. It’s impossible to overstate how much this program changed the future trajectory of CARICOM rum makers, and Patrick was at the helm during the program’s inception and early years.

On a personal note, the Caribbean Rum Sector Programme facilitated my first trip to Jamaica’s rum distilleries in 2016. It was that experience that ignited a passion within me to travel to and thoroughly document today’s Caribbean rum industry. The end result, published ten years later, was my book, Modern Caribbean Rum. In that time, I also began serving as WIRSPA’s Community Envoy.

A Personal Note

After Patrick handed off the WIRSPA chairmanship to Frank Ward in 2007, he became Chairman Emeritus, which he took very seriously. After starting in the community envoy role, I also had many hour-long, wide-ranging phone calls with Patrick, covering past, present, and future subjects. His enthusiastic hellos still linger in my memory.

In 2023 I interviewed Patrick for WIRSPA’s Icon Series, which documents the stories of people who’ve played vital roles in Caribbean rum over the past 60 years. My interview with Patrick is on YouTube:

Patrick Mayers of West Indies Rum Distillery and WIRSPA Chairman Emeritus

I met Patrick twice in person while in Barbados. Our first meeting was in 2021 while COVID still had everyone on high alert. Patrick, his wife Ann, and I sat outside - a safe distance apart, getting to know each other for four hours. In 2023 I was finally able to meet Patrick and Ann at their home. Again, the hours flew by until we had to depart for another engagement.

With Patrick’s passing, I find myself thinking of his humble nature, his devotion to family and friends, and his willingness to serve others for the greater good. The Caribbean rum family will miss his quiet strength and generous spirit.

France-based Pernod Ricard and US-based Brown-Forman, both large-scale alcoholic beverage conglomerates, recently confirmed that they are in discussions described as a “merger of equals.” When such mergers become a possibility, my thoughts turn to what that might mean for the rum brands involved.

Pernod Ricard’s flagship rum brand is Havana Club—the Cuban-made version. Pernod also owns a majority stake in La Hechicera from Colombia. As for Brown-Forman, it acquired the Diplomatico brand a few years ago. However, the distillery that makes Diplomatico, Destilerías Unidas (DUSA), was not part of the transaction.

Brands as Team Players

Most conglomerates like Pernod and Brown-Forman operate like a sports team, with each brand as a player. Some are star players and receive much of the marketing attention. Others are journeyman players, filling a particular role necessary to field a whole team. A baseball team without a catcher is hobbled compared to one with a competent catcher.

Within the spirits industry, a conglomerate’s star player opens doors for the company’s other players. Pernod’s reps selling Jameson and Absolut have more than just a foot in the door with distributors and on-premise accounts, so that they can incorporate smaller brands like La Hechicera, Olmeca tequila, and Redbreast Irish whiskey into their dealmaking. A broad portfolio covering the major spirit and liqueur categories can help create diversification and, hopefully, steady income, which is what big companies crave. Look at the truly big players like Bacardi, Diageo, LVMH, etc., and you’ll find they have a brand at each position, e.g., vodka, Scotch whisky, American whiskey, rum, tequila, cognac, and so forth.

When two businesses merge, all assets are evaluated to see how they fit into the new team structure. Duplicate roles without a strong reason otherwise are eliminated. When it’s employees, layoffs occur. When it comes to brands, they’re sold off or otherwise traded.

Mergers aren’t the only reason why a spirits conglomerate might dispose of a portfolio brand. A brand might simply be underperforming. Or a portfolio as a whole might be struggling, perhaps by over-diversification. Selling off non-strategic brands raises cash and provides a sharper focus for the remaining brands.

Back to the Future

With the above context in mind, let’s ponder which brands could have new corporate owners at some point. The potential Brown-Forman / Pernod Ricard merger is a good place to start because we know all the players involved:

• Havana Club (Cuban-made)

• La Hechicera (majority ownership)

• Diplomatico

Malibu (Pernod Ricard) isn’t listed here as it’s a rum-based drink rather than rum.

What notable here is that all three brands are Spanish-heritage style rums with significant stylistic overlap. I have no specific knowledge of either company’s plans, but Havana Club is by far the most well-known and strategically important, so it is unlikely to go anywhere. As for the others, we’ll have to wait and see.

In a broader context, the spirits industry has been under enormous financial pressure over the last year or so, due in part to an overall decline in drinking, tariff-war challenges, and a “bust” following the COVID-era “boom.” The biggest players are no exception, and a recent article notes, Major Spirits Brands Are Sitting on a $22B Glut of Unsold Inventory. The companies listed in the article are Diageo, Pernod Ricard, Campari, Brown-Forman, and Remy Cointreau.

Word on the street is that at least one—and possibly more—marquee rum brands are quietly being shopped around. I won’t speculate here, but it’s a useful exercise to enumerate all the big players and their rum brand portfolios. Perhaps consider who may be particularly in a pickle, so to speak. Also, consider that publicly traded companies may be under more investor pressure than privately held companies.

Here’s a snapshot of the situation today, along with color commentary:

Bacardi Limited (Privately Held)

• Bacardi / Havana Club (USA-only brand) / Castillo

• Banks

• Pyrat

Bacardi clearly won’t be parting with its legendary, house origin brands. However, Banks and Pyrat were acquisitions.

Diageo (Publicly Traded)

• Captain Morgan

• Zacapa (co-owned with the Botran family)

• Bundaberg

• Don Papa

• McDowell’s No. 1

Pernod Ricard (Publicly Traded)

• Havana Club (50/50 joint venture with Cuba Ron S.A., a Cuban-state entity)

• La Hechicera

Havana Club is unlikely to go anywhere, given how much Pernod Ricard invested in creating the partnership with the Cuban government, as well as Havana Club’s global recognition.

While not listed above, Pernod Ricard has a stake in Bumbu that could become a majority share. (Yes, Bumbu has an actual rum among its offerings.)

Campari Group (Publicly Traded)

• Appleton Estate / Wray & Nephew / Kingston 62 / Coruba

• Trois Rivières

• La Mauny

• Duquesne

Appleton is a marquee rum brand, and Campari’s ownership is well-known. The Martinique brands, less so outside of France.

Rémy Cointreau (Publicly Traded)

• Mount Gay

Rémy Cointreau has invested quite a bit of money into Mount Gay in the last decade, including a new sugar mill, acquisition of sugarcane fields, and distillery upgrades.

Brown-Forman (Publicly Traded)

• Diplomatico

LVMH (Publicly Traded)

• Eminente (exact ownership structure is unclear, but may involve Cuba Ron S.A.)

Suntory Global Spirits (Privately Held)

• Cruzan

La Martiniquaise-Bardinet (Privately Held)

• Saint-James

• Depaz

• Dillon

• Bally

• Rhum DBM

• Domaine de Bellevue

• Rivière du Mât

• Cacique

• Negrita

• Old Nick

• Island Signature Rum

La Martiniquaise-Bardinet has a very strong position in the French market and owns a majority stake in Marie Brizard Wine & Spirits. Clearly, they don’t see an issue holding multiple rum brands making the same type of rum. See France’s Largest Rum Maker Hides in Plain Sight for a deep dive on this company.

Spiribam / Groupe Bernard Hayot (Privately Held)

• Rhum Clément

• Rhum J.M.

• Chairman’s Reserve

• Admiral Rodney

• Bounty

• La Belle Cabresse

• La Cayennaise

• Cœur de Chauffe

• Arcane

• Beach House

While originally rum-only, Spiribam has aggressively expanded beyond French rum in recent years. Like La Martiniquaise-Bardinet, they don’t see an issue holding multiple rum brands offering similar styles of rum.

Maison Ferrand (Privately Held)

• Planteray (Formerly Plantation)

• Stade’s

• Canerock

Not a traditional conglomerate like bigger players like LVMH. All of Ferrand’s brands began as internal projects. The acquisition of the West Indies Rum Distillery in Barbados didn’t include brands.

Edrington (Privately Held)

• Brugal

Mostly focused on whisky/whiskey. Brugal is its only non-whisky brand.

William Grant & Sons (Privately Held)

• Sailor Jerry

• O.V.D. (Old Vatted Demerara)

• Wood’s

Proximo Spirits (Privately Held)

• Kraken

While lesser known than many of the other conglomerates, they are a tequila powerhouse, leading with Jose Cuervo. Another portfolio heavy hitter is Bushmills. Proximo also distributes Ron Matusalem in the US, but doesn’t appear to own the brand. In 2025, Proximo divested US-based Owney’s Rum.

Wrap-Up

While a distillery or brand changing corporate ownership might seem of minor consequence, numerous ownership changes in the past two decades prove otherwise. Conglomerates often go bargain-hunting, then invest heavily in sprucing up their acquisitions. Done right, these investments help elevate the rum category as a whole. Among recent purchases:

• Edrington’s purchase of Brugal in 2008

• Diageo’s purchase of 50% of Zacapa in 2011

• Campari’s purchase of Wray & Nephew / Appleton in 2012.

• Rémy Cointreau’s purchase of the Mount Gay distillery in 2014.

• Spiribam’s purchase of St. Lucia Distillers in 2016

• Maison Ferrand’s purchase of West Indies Rum Distillery in 2017. (The Stade’s brand is one result of the purchase.)

That’s all for now! Post your thoughts (or speculation!) in the comments.

How cool would it be to step back in time to visit Jamaica’s Appleton Estate in 1950? While time machines are still a way off, a Wray & Nephew brochure from the era and other archival photos provide a surprisingly detailed look at the company’s rum making 75 years ago.

The brochure is titled “The Story of Dagger Jamaica Rum.” While undated, the images and styling suggest an early 1950s publishing date. Within its 32 pages, numerous black-and-white images and textual descriptions take us on a journey from the cane fields to the bottling line. Let’s “step inside” the brochure and mentally transport ourselves to 1950s Jamaica.

Setting the Stage

Jamaica is still a British colony in 1950, but it is rapidly acquiring modern amenities. The arrival of affordable air travel in the post-WWII era boosted its popularity as a tourist destination. Wray & Nephew is owned by Percy Lindo, of Lindo Brothers fame, though within a decade, he would sell the company to Lascelles DeMercado and the Henriques Brothers.

Wray & Nephew’s distillery, Appleton Estate, is an integrated sugar mill and rum making operation at the time. Unfortunately, the subsequent steep decline in Caribbean sugar economics would shutter many sugar mills, leaving distilleries such as Appleton separated from the factories that once supplied their molasses.

Pot distillation was the only game in town for Jamaican rum making in 1950. It would be another decade before column distillation gained a foothold in Jamaica’s rum distilleries.

In a nod to practicality and the export market, Wray & Nephew’s aging bonds and bottling operations are 60 miles east of Appleton Estate in Kingston. So large is Wray & Nephew’s aging stock that the company owns four massive aging warehouses for its rum to slumber under the eye of Jamaica’s excise officials.

Wray & Nephew has over a dozen rums in its portfolio, but it’s the Dagger line (One, Two, and Three Dagger) that’s most heavily promoted. Appleton Estate Special had launched less than a decade earlier, but hadn’t yet acquired the prestige of Appleton Estate rum today.

In what follows, I will mix quotes from the aforementioned brochure, photographs, and my own editorial comments. My notes are in regular text like this, while….

Text sections formatted like this are taken directly from the brochure.

The Tour Begins – Sugarcane Mill

Our tour begins with a long drive out to Cockpit Country, where Appleton Estate sits alongside the Black River. Sugarcane fields extend in all directions. The air is hot, and the noise from the sugar factory makes it hard to hear.

The cane must arrive at the sugar mill as soon after cutting as possible. All manner of conveyances are used from ox-wagon to the motor tractor, truck, and the special narrow gauge railway…. What’s that across the road? … a crane that lifts whole cart loads of sugar cane to the conveyor.

Up the conveyor belt it goes to the “chopper”— a series of heavy sharp knives on a whirling shaft…. The “crusher” operates just like the family clothes wringer; the rollers are made of hard steel, with peculiarly patterned indentations—the diameter about 26 inches. Here is where the last drop of cane juice is squeezed out…

From there the juice passes on to the evaporator station for 75% of the water to be boiled off… But it is the job of the “vacuum pans” to boil off the balance of the water, thereby crystallizing the syrup of the original cane juice, to make sugar. These crystals, however, are floating around in the glucose content which we call molasses.

Fermentation

Sugar factory tour complete, we now walk 50 meters to the adjoining distillery complex and enter the fermentation hall.

The first step in making rum is the mixing of molasses and water together in a large tank. The result is called “wash.” We tried to get the recipe but the proportions are one of the Distillery’s secrets—a secret that provides Dagger Rum with its characteristic fineness and inimitable flavour.

Nothing surprising here. However… if we go reread the 1947 Dagger advertisement shown earlier, it says, “This Appleton Rum is made by … the sugarcane juice without ‘extracting any sugar and this gives it its distinctive flavour….”

At first glance, this mention of sugarcane juice is very surprising! Was Appleton really making rhum agricole? Not necessarily. The sugarcane juice mentioned may be concentrated cane juice, that is, cane syrup. A cane syrup fermentation yields a flavor closer to a molasses fermentation than a raw cane juice fermentation.

But again, the brochure says molasses. Maybe we can blame marketing copy, which isn’t always so great at conveying these small but important details. In any event, it’s an interesting detail to file away for future investigation.

The “wash” is pumped into a series of fermenting vats, each vat holding 4,400 gallons. In these large vats fermentation takes place for about 72 hours. At the end of this time fermentation ceases. The “wash” is now ready for distillation.

The 72-hour fermentation is dwelling on for a bit. It’s typical duration for a mainstream rum, but the truly bold, funky flavors Jamaican rum is famous for come from much longer fermentations, à la Hampden and Long Pond.

Just like today, Jamaican rum of the mid-20^th century had a wide spectrum of flavor intensities. While we’d like to imagine that old-school Wray & Nephew rums were funk bombs, historical evidence and tastings of old W&N samples suggest otherwise. Vive la difference!

Distillation

A “charge” of from 1,200 to 2,000 gallons of fermented “wash” is run into the pot-still. Vapours form, which pass through a “low wine” and a “high wine” retort. It is in these two retorts that the vapours pick up the bouquet and flavour that distinguishes Jamaica Rum. The vapours are then condensed into a crystal clear liquid which bubbles forth from the still as new Jamaica Rum.

While the pictures above unfortunately don’t show the entire still, the reference to low wine and high wine retorts makes it clear that Appleton was using double retort pot stills. A single distillation pass goes through three distinct enrichment phases and yields rum at 80% ABV or higher. Double retort stills are almost synonymous with Caribbean rum making, and Jamaican rum in particular.

The size of the wash batches enables us to infer the pot still sizes, so likely Appleton had a set of stills between 1,200 and 2,000 gallons. A decade or two later, Appleton’s “pot still row” would be upgraded to 5 double-retort stills, each 5,000 gallons in size.

Aging, Blending, and Bottling

With our visit to Appleton Estate complete, it’s time to hitch a ride back to Kingston in the cab of one of the many Wray & Nephew rum tanker trucks headed that way. Our first stop is an aging warehouse.

Over two million gallons of Dagger Rum rest in casks, and in five and ten thousand gallon oaken vats. These are stored in four large bonded Government warehouses that were built privately by J. Wray & Nephew Ltd., exclusively for ageing their Dagger Rums.

Of interest here is aging in five- and ten-thousand-gallon vats, i.e., “vatted rum.” The practice was quite common at the time, allowing rum to mellow over long durations without becoming overly oaky. However, there’s a school of thought today that age statements shouldn’t apply to vat-aged rum. Aging in small casks has become the norm.

Also of note, the image of vats above was previously used in a 1938 story about the company, stating that it had a million gallons aging. Roughly a decade later, Wray & Nephew had double that amount, a significant expansion despite the interruption of World War II.

While not shown in the brochure tour, fellow historian Tim Glazner has given me the OK to include two photos from the early-1940s photos that show blending and bottling operations. The first shows what appears to be filtering a batch of rum. The second shows workers applying labels to what appears to be “white proof” rum, a forerunner of Wray & Nephew White Overproof.

Tour completed, we reluctantly return to our time machine. But before boarding, we enjoy one final Daggeree cocktail.

I have ideas for a more photo-based tours from the past. Was this interesting? Let me know what you think in the comments!

To deeply understand the rum world, you need to know the key players and how they’re interrelated. So, today we’re looking at France’s largest rum maker, a company whose name and scale are virtually unknown except to a few insiders. Some of their brands are marquee players in the enthusiast world, but, just like icebergs, only 10% of the story is above the waterline.

French billionaire Jean-Pierre Cayard is the owner of Compagnie Financière Européenne de Prises de Participation, a mouthful of a name mercifully abbreviated to COFEPP. Technically, it’s a holding company with two better-known child companies: Bardinet and La Martiniquaise. In the trade, Bardinet and La Martiniquaise are collectively known as La Martiniquaise-Bardinet.

Size-wise, COFEPP is France’s third-largest alcohol beverage company, smaller than Pernod Ricard and LVMH, but bigger than Rémy Cointreau. If we limit the scope to only spirits, COFEPP is arguably France’s 2^nd largest spirit company. And while COFEPP is France’s largest rum company, it also brings in healthy revenues via a broad portfolio of wine and other spirits, with Cutty Sark among its better-known holdings. The company also has a majority ownership in Marie Brizard Wine and Spirits.

Connecting the dots between COFEPP and its many holdings, including Saint-James and Negrita, is a herculean task. Having spent several hours digging through corporate filings, I couldn’t find any clear rhyme or reason why certain COFEPP rum assets are under Bardinet and others under La Martiniquaise. In what follows, I’ve simplified a few esoteric details to avoid bogging down the story.

The infographic below provides a high-level overview of COFEPP’s rum holdings. For further details, read on.

Breaking it Down

Collectively, COFEPP owns five rum distilleries and partially owns three more.

On Martinique:

• Saint-James (Saint-James, Bally brands)

• Depaz (Depaz, Dillon brands)

• Le Galion (partial ownership)

On Guadeloupe / Marie-Galante:

• Bellevue Marie-Galante (Bellevue brand)

• Bonne Mère (Rhum DBM brand)

• Poisson (partial ownership)

• Sucreries Et Rhumeries de Marie-Galante (partial ownership)

On Réunion:

• Rivière du Mât (Rivière du Mât brand)

Of these eight distilleries, seven are among France’s biggest rum distilleries. Based on the quota data described below, COFEPP owns the biggest distilleries in Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Réunion.

Beyond the distillery-associated brands above, COFEPP’s value brands are Negrita and Old Nick, both of which are readily available in French grocery stores. Given COFEPP’s significant production capacity in both the Caribbean and Indian Ocean (Réunion), you might ask who makes Negrita and Old Nick.

Negrita’s label says Îles Françaises du Rhum, which isn’t one of the phrases legally protected by France’s seven rum GIs. Basically, the label is saying “French island rum.” Negrita’s brand page helpfully notes — in French: Guadeloupe, Martinique and Réunion Island – molasses rums or agricultural rums, old or young.

Old Nick is a different story; its label states Rhum des Antilles françaises. This is an GI-protected phrase and is restricted to molasses or cane juice rum from Martinique or Guadeloupe. (More info on this GI here.)

Quotas, Rhum Agricole, and Rhum Traditionnel

To further illustrate how big COFEPP is within the French rum ecosystem, we can look at the production quota amounts assigned to each distillery. A single national quota, currently 153,000 hectoliters of pure alcohol per year, is distributed across the four overseas departments (e.g., Martinique) and then suballocated to individual distilleries, somewhat proportionally to their production capacity. It’s an imperfect system, but it offers the most data we have to compare distillery output. To obtain the numbers below, I put information from the most recent quota legislation (July 3^rd 2025) into a spreadsheet and got to work.

Before we get to the stats, a refresher: per French GIs, rhum agricole is made from cane juice, while rhum traditionnel is made from molasses.

Here are three key stats that highlight just how big COFEPP is in French rum:

• Collectively, COFEPP-owned or partially owned distilleries make up 63% of France’s 153,000 hectoliter rum quota.

• COFEPP distilleries have 84% of France’s quota for rhum traditionnel production. Guadeloupe’s Bonne Mère is the biggest, and Rivière du Mât in Réunion isn’t far behind. The remaining rhum traditionnel quota (16%) is held by Isautier and Savanna on Réunion. (Both also make rhum agricole.)

• For Martinique rhum agricole production, Saint-James and Depaz hold the first- and third-largest quotas. Combined, they have 43% of Martinique’s agricole quota. (Note: what we think of as the Depaz distillery is referred to as Dillon in the quota legislation.)

As an aside, many enthusiasts think cane juice is synonymous with French rum. The quotas show otherwise: 51% of the quota goes to rhum agricole, and 49% goes to rhum traditionnel. However, rhum agricole gets more attention from enthusiasts, primarily for its high-end bottlings. In contrast, rhum traditionnel has mostly been the domain of budget rums. This seems to be changing with Rhum DBM.

While there are many more details I could add here, I think you get the point about COFEPP’s huge position in the French rum market. However, COFEPP / La Martiniquaise-Bardinet isn’t France’s only rum maker with multiple distilleries in multiple regions. I’ll say more about this in a future post.

When we look at how rum is marketed, we often see brand “founding” dates several centuries in the past. To wit:

• Bacardi 1862

• Mount Gay 1703

• Saint-James 1765

• Worthy Park 1749

• Brugal 1888

• Angostura 1824

However, students of history need to distinguish between when a distillery started making rum and when that distillery name became a brand name. For example, the Mount Gay distillery dates to 1703, but “Mount Gay Rum” as a brand didn’t appear on store shelves until circa 1930.

This brings us to Appleton Estate 1749. Like Mount Gay, Appleton Estate—the distillery, and Appleton Estate—the brand, are also separated by nearly 200 years. That itself isn’t surprising, but there’s an interesting story about the very early days of the Appleton Estate brand.

Let’s start with the now well-known basics. The Appleton distillery dates to 1749—or even earlier, per research by rum historian Ian Williams. Appleton Estate’s parent company, J. Wray & Nephew, pegs its start date to 1825, when John Wray opened a Kingston tavern.

By the late 1800s, Wray & Nephew had become importers and merchants, buying and blending rums from various sources and selling them under the J. Wray & Nephew brand. No later than 1899, we see Wray & Nephew selling expressions like Green Seal, Black Seal, and Three Dagger.

The Wray & Nephew brand underpinned all the company’s expressions, as seen in this 1938 advertisement for Three Dagger rum.

Enter Appleton

In 1916, the Lindo Brothers purchased both Appleton Estate and J. Wray & Nephew from separate owners. It was the first time that Appleton and J. Wray & Nephew existed under the same ownership. The new owners wasted little time launching an Applemony expression under the J. Wray & Nephew brand. The Applemony name comes from Appleton and Monymusk, which the Lindo Brothers also owned.

Nonetheless, Applemony isn’t Appleton Estate—the brand. It wasn’t until the 1944 launch of Appleton Estate Special that we see the distillery’s name take the lead role on a Wray & Nephew bottle. At the time, Appleton Estate Special was said to be a clean, light-bodied rum of uniform high quality and rich, distinctive flavour.

Bend Down

Earlier, I said that Appleton Estate Special launched in 1944; that’s the earliest mention I can find. However, Special may have “informally” launched a few years earlier. In his book, 56 Years in the Liquor Industry (and still counting), Wray & Nephew alumnus and rum industry legend Michael Delevante writes:

During the second war when Scotch was unavailable. Special was sold in clubs at 40% ABV. an illegal strength for rum in those days It had to be kept under the bar to avoid scrutiny by Excise officers, so it earned the name Bend Down since the bartender had to bend down to retrieve the bottle

A 1975 Jamaica Gleaner article expands on the above:

YES, SOME PEOPLE, around the country parts called it whisky, but it really was rum —a much finer, smoother rum than the Black Seal and Applemony that were quite popular then. We’re talking about the 1940’s, during the Second World War, when many accustomed tastes could not be indulged…

But the rum that was then called whisky also got another name —“Ben’ Down”! — because of a provision which prohibited rum that was not of a certain “proof” from being sold in ordinary bars and shops. So, Appleton Estate Special, which is the rum that was called whisky, was supposed to be retailed only in private clubs. But this Appleton Special quickly became so widely preferred by Jamaicans in general, that the bars and shops went ahead and sold it. Only they didn’t display it publicly, so when you ordered a drink the barkeeper had to bend down and fetch it from under the counter… It wouldn’t have been wise to say “Appleton Special” out loud in the shop, so the customer would whisper that he wanted a drink of “Ben’ Down”.

That’s all for now. I’m off to Miami this week to take part in the Miami Rum Congress, drink rum, and see some friends. Never fear, I’ve got more stories cooking for when I return.

As Planteray’s Mister Fogg Navy Rum, Sail N° 2 reaches store shelves, I’ve seen a wave of questions about what it is, how it relates to Sail N° 1, and how closely it tracks historical Royal Navy rum. While I don’t work for Planteray, my research into Royal Navy and London Dock rums directly informed the project, and I’ve had a front-row view of its development. What follows is some background on how Mister Fogg came to be, and answers to many of the questions I see most often.

Brief Background of Mister Fogg Navy Rum.

In late 2018, Planteray (Plantation at the time) asked me to research Royal Navy and London Dock rum and write a short book about what I learned. I handed in a set of chapters six months later, but Alexandre Gabriel and I continued discussing the topic. Based on references to the Royal Navy aging their rum in large open vats, Alexandre modified two of his vats in France to make a rum inspired by the techniques and rums the Royal Navy used.

The first batch of Mister Fogg (“Sail N° 1”) was launched at Tales of the Cocktail in 2024, and a second batch (Sail N° 2) was released a year later. While they are different blends, both rely on the style of rums that the Royal Navy was known to use.

For more details on the Mister Fogg project, see this story:

Around the same time, Wonk Press, my book publishing company, released The Rum Never Sets. The book is a greatly expanded version of what I wrote in 2019 and includes chapters by Alexandre that connect the Mister Fogg project to the history that inspired it.

Mister Fogg Q&A

Here are some brief answers to some of the frequent questions about Mister Fogg navy rum.

Who is Mister Fogg?

When Charles Tobias, founder of Pusser’s Rum, started his project, he was connected to Michael Fogg, an employee of the company that sold the component rums to the Royal Navy. Charles later hired Michael, who served for several decades as the commercial director and brand ambassador for Pusser’s.

I met and became friends with Michael during my research. He shared many anecdotes and stories, as well as documents connecting key topics in my research. When Michael passed away in 2020, Alexandre named the rum in his honor, with permission from Michael’s wife, Jayne.

This Cocktail Wonk article tells Michael Fogg’s story in more detail: Remembering Michael Fogg – Conservator of Rum’s Legacy

Is Mister Fogg a Recreation of the Royal Navy Rum?

No, and that’s intentional. Alexandre drew on the techniques and types of rum the Royal Navy used, but creating a replica of the Royal Navy’s recipe at a specific point in time wasn’t the goal. If you want to know exactly what Royal Navy rum tasted like, Black Tot Last Consignment is the real deal. It’s actual Royal Navy rum made in the 1950s and 1960s.

How do I tell Which Edition of Mister Fogg I have?

It’s easy, once you know where to look. While the main label is similar for both editions, the neck band below the cork reads either Sail N° 1 or Sail N° 2.

Also, if you have both bottles, see if you can spot all the changes in the main label imagery and text.

Why Sail N° 1 and Sail N° 2?

The two open vats used to make Mister Fogg hold enough rum to make around 35,000 bottles. Because the rum continuously flows between the two vats for many months, only one batch can be made at a time.

Anticipating future demand for this rum beyond just 35,000 bottles, Planteray planned a series of sequential limited editions. The two batches so far share the same primary name, Mister Fogg, but are differentiated by a batch number, i.e., Sail N° 1, Sail N° 2, etc. The two batches are distinctly different, as noted in the next question.

Will there be a Sail N° 3? I certainly hope so! But there’s nothing I can report on thus far.

Are Sail N° 1 and Sail N° 2 the same?

No, and that’s also intentional. Most rum releases rely on a recipe that’s used repeatedly to make each batch. But as my research turned up, the rums that the Royal Navy used changed frequently due to pricing and availability. However, the navy blender(s) sought to retain the core flavor profile. This ethos influenced how the two Mister Fogg batches are different.

The Sail N° 1 blend is:

• 43% Barbados: West Indies Rum Distillery

• 36% Trinidad: Trinidad Distillers Ltd (aka Angostura)

• 17% Guyana: Demerara Distillers Ltd

• 4% Jamaica: Clarendon and Long Pond

The Sail N° 2 blend is:

• 35% Trinidad: Trinidad Distillers Ltd (aka Angostura)

• 34% Barbados: West Indies Rum Distillery

• 20% Guyana: Demerara Distillers Ltd

• 6% Mauritius: St Aubin Distillery (cane juice)

• 5% Jamaica: Clarendon, Long Pond, and Hampden

As a point of reference, the Royal Navy’s blend in the mid-1900s was:

• 60% Demerara (mostly pot still)

• 30% Trinidad (mostly or entirely Caroni)

• 10% other (changed over time, but included Barbados, Australia, Natal, and Mauritius)

The exact recipe used in 1962 is detailed in The Rum Never Sets book.

How do Sail N° 1 and Sail N° 2 Compare – Taste-Wise?

Everyone’s palate is different, but here’s my take.

Sail N° 1 has distinct spiciness and dried-fruit notes that make me think of fruitcake. Some people say “cinnamon,” but I’d say “cinnamon-adjacent”. I’ve wondered about infusing a bottle of OFTD with fruitcake to see how close the result is to Sail N° 1.

Sail N° 2 is less spicy and less dried fruit. It’s significantly closer in flavor profile to actual Royal Navy rum and rums that seek to replicate that flavor. So far, the ratio of people preferring one over the other is roughly 50/50 in my experience.

What Can I Make with Mister Fogg?

Again, this is a matter of personal taste, and I see folks using Mister Fogg in daiquiris and Mai-Tais. From my perspective, using it as the sole rum in a Navy Grog is a no-brainer. I think it’s also well-suited as a one-rum solution for recipes using the classic Don the Beachcomber blend of Demerara, Jamaica, and something lighter. Think 1934 Zombie or Jet Pilot here.

Pro-tip: Sail N° 1 in particular works well in stirred, rum-forward drinks. Consider the Foggroni, a rum-based Negroni with adjusted component ratios:

Foggroni – Matt Pietrek (2024)

• 1.5 oz Mister Fogg (Sail N° 1 preferred)

• 1 oz sweet red vermouth

• 0.75 oz Campari

Stir over ice. Strain into a chilled coupe or other small vessel

Why Can’t I Find Sail N° 1?

Planteray makes so many expressions that it’s not feasible to release each in every market around the globe. For reasons I’m not privy to, Sail No. 1 was designated for the US market; however, a small number of bottles found their way to certain EU markets. I’m told that Sail N° 2 is destined for the US and most major EU markets, but not the UK as of yet.

Is Mister Fogg Sweetened? If so, Why?

Per the label, both Sail N° 1 and Sail N° 2 have a dosage of 4.8 g/L. In this case, the dosage is from burnt sugar cooked in a copper kettle in Barbados.

While this may raise some eyebrows, especially those with strong feelings about additive-free rum, it’s historically consistent with Royal Navy practice. Rather than using E150a as many modern spirits do, the Royal Navy used moderately burnt caramel to color their rum. The small amount of sugar remaining in the caramel affected the measured alcoholic strength. (See next question for further details.)

The Royal Navy documented this practice in several 1900s-era victualling manuals, and Mister Fogg specifically emulates this historical practice.

Why is Mister Fogg bottled at 55.7% ABV, not 57% ABV, or 54.5% ABV?

The traditional tool used to measure alcoholic strength is known as a hydrometer. This simple tool uses the relative density of ethanol and water to ascertain the percentage of alcohol. The presence of anything in the spirit other than ethanol or water alters (“obscures”) the stated percentage, albeit in a consistent manner.

The Royal Navy victualling manual notes that without the added caramel, a hydrometer would measure the navy’s rum at 2.5 degrees underproof. But with caramel, the hydrometer reads 4.5 degrees underproof. In ABV units, with caramel, 54.5% ABV, without caramel, 55.7% ABV.

These days, ABV is measured using a much more reliable method that ignores the obscuration effect. The Mister Fogg label states an ABV of 55.7% ABV using this method. However, if the ABV were measured with a hydrometer, the 4.8 gr/liter of dosage in Mister Fogg would cause the hydrometer to read 54.5% ABV.

Simply put, Mister Fogg is emulating what the Royal Navy blenders did.

That’s all for now! Did I miss anything? Leave your questions in the comments.

The end of 2025 marks my 12th year as a spirits and drinks writer. As each year ends, I review which stories received the most responses, which were my sentimental favorites, and a few stats—I’m a techie/engineer at heart, after all.

First, the stats: subscriptions to Rum Wonk grew by 43%, and the paid subscriber count increased by 14%. (A hearty thanks to those who financially support this site!) My total story count was 26, a bit lower than usual. However, preparing for and moving to France takes a lot of time! So does growing a publishing business. My 2026 goal is to get my story count back up.

Top Five Stories by Page Views

Per page views recorded in Google Analytics, here are the top five Rum Wonk posts of 2025. Unsurprisingly, Jamaican rum was the top topic.

Hurricane Melissa’s Impact on Jamaica’s Rum Makers

When Hurricane Melissa devastated Jamaica in October, the global rum community collectively held its breath, awaiting news about the island’s rum makers. While it took many weeks to assess the damage, my top story of the year provided early details.

Jamaica Rum Styles Primer

Gone are the days when “Jamaica rum” was adequate to describe the island’s wide range of rums. Today, Jamaica’s distilleries make a variety of substyles, but all based on the island’s fermentation-derived “funk.” This article and accompanying infographic enumerate the core substyles. While not everyone agreed with my grouping and naming, it sparked some lively conversations around how to think about Jamaican rum.

The Essential Tiki Rum Style That Disappeared

Back in the original era of Tiki drinks (1930s-1960s), Don the Beachcomber and Trader Vic often used “Martinique rum” in their tropical concoctions. But they weren’t using the rhum agricole that’s synonymous with Martinique today. While the island’s producers don’t make this style of rum anymore, other French departments do, and their rums are gaining traction with a new generation of tropical bartenders.

Dunder, Muck, and Acid - Demystifying Jamaica Rum’s Secret Sauce

There’s much myth, misunderstanding, and lore around how Jamaica’s rum makers supercharge flavor creation during fermentation. This story lays out the facts about each of the additional fermentation components that most other rum makers eschew.

Equiano Rum - What Happened?

The rum world was shocked when “Global Rum Ambassador” Ian Burrell announced he was stepping away from the Equiano rum brand that he co-founded. While Burrell alleged that the company’s trademark had been misappropriated, public records show there was much more to the story. Among the details, a company grappling with financing challenges as it sought to grow, and a connection to Uncle Nearest whiskey, itself under pressure from creditors.

Top Five Stories You May Have Missed

Rum Wonk has never been about reviews and chasing the latest “must-have” releases. Instead, the focus is on medium- to -advanced-level topics for dedicated rum enthusiasts. These stories didn’t make the Top Five in page views, but they are prime examples of what this newsletter is about.

Mai Tai Rum(s): Myths and Mistakes

During the tiki revival of the past two decades, it’s almost become gospel that Trader Vic’s “original” Mai Tai recipe called for an ounce each of Jamaican rum and Martinique rhum agricole. However, a close reading of the historical record, including Vic’s own words, shows that 2 ounces of Jamaican rum was always Vic’s preference. And even when Vic started using Martinique rum, it wasn’t rhum agricole. Simply put, things change, and Martinique rhum wasn’t always rhum agricole.

Why does that Indie-Bottled Rum Cost $100?

High-end, independently bottled rums often have eye-watering prices, and European consumers have a much larger selection of such rums. But when you see where the money paid for a bottle goes, you may be shocked that any brand even bothers releasing such rums in the US.

Where Does Mount Gay’s New Silver Rum Fit In?

While the title might seem like a run-of-the-mill review, this story decidedly isn’t. Rums that are colorless and clear are typically lumped into an amorphous “white rum” category, when in reality, most fall into a small set of distinct, well-defined styles. Mount Gay’s new “Silver” rum is an exception, but discussing it provided an opportunity to advocate a more informed and nuanced way to think about clear rums.

It’s Not All About Esters When It Comes to Rum

Esters are a class of organic compounds that give flavor to rum, but other types of organic compounds often dwarf their contribution to a rum’s flavor. However, in high-end rum circles, ester levels are usually the center of attention. This article dives into “volatile compounds,” a much more inclusive and meaningful measurement of rum flavor.

When is a Column Still Not a Column Still?

“Pot still” and “column still” are common ways of classifying rum. But this overly simplistic distinction fuels significant misunderstanding of distillation and flavor. Even some distillers seem to misunderstand the distinction. This can lead to tasting competitions awarding medals based on erroneous data. This story covers the bare basics of distillation theory to expose this common misunderstanding.

Thanks to all who’ve read Rum Wonk stories in 2025. Stay tuned for much more rum-soaked wonkery in 2026!

Many of my posts here go into “how the sausage is made” topics. This time, I’m turning the camera around to take you behind the scenes of Wonk Press, the independent publisher I started with Carrie Smith (aka Mrs. Wonk). In 2016, I had a vision for a no-compromises, deep-dive rum book. I knew no traditional publisher would gamble on it, so Carrie and I decided to do it ourselves. In the years since, Wonk Press has grown into a business that now competes with rum for my time and attention.

2025 was a transformative year for us. We’re very proud of releasing three new books over six months:

• Vestige: Twenty Years of Modern Pinup

• The Rum Never Sets Book

• Royal Navy Rum & London Dock Rum (French Language)

However, just as importantly, albeit less visible, we revamped many of our operations to enable future growth. Like rum companies, we must constantly evolve and respond to events and market forces beyond our control. Here’s a brief peek at what we did this year.

Bringing in Outside Specialists

When we started in 2019, we shipped orders from our home to minimize expenses. When the first batch of Minimalist Tiki arrived, our kitchen table was our shipping station, and cases of books were stashed throughout the house. In time, we graduated to a storage space, and then multiple storage spaces when 16,000 lbs (11 pallets!) of Modern Caribbean Rum arrived.

As 2025 began, it became more cost-effective to use a 3PL (third-party logistics provider) to store and ship our books. The bonus benefit: spending less time packing orders ourselves. It took months of planning and integration, but when our books started shipping from an Illinois warehouse, the payoff was immediate.

Embracing Agility

Our first five books were hardcover and printed in South Korea using the best paper and bindings. However, it’s not economical to print a few dozen copies this way. Economies of scale don’t kick in until 1,000 copies or more, creating a substantial upfront cost for each print run. The bill for printing Modern Caribbean Rum? Ooof — it was tough! A huge monetary risk that thankfully paid off. Had I not already invested six years of my life into it, I might have made a different choice.

So, when we started production on The Rum Never Sets, our smallest book thus far, we decided it made sense to use a softcover, with the same quality paper and offset printers as our prior books. Embracing new printing options enables us to sell to our customers for less, which lets us price our books lower. It also lets us print in smaller quantities and in different geographical regions, which segues nicely into our next big change.

Enhancing Customer Experience

We’ve had high international demand for our books since we started, especially from European rum aficionados. But while our US-based warehouse ships worldwide, shipping rates from couriers like UPS, DHL, and FedEx often cost more than the product itself. Clearly, not an ideal situation for our customers—or for us!

In November, after months of preparation and tackling the issue of per-country VAT and import duties head-on, our UK-based fulfilment partner went live. We can now ship to the UK and the EU at a substantially lower cost than from the US. Is it glamorous work? No. Does it help us sell books? Yes.

Stocking the warehouse with our titles is another non-trivial task. By printing our navy rum books in the UK, the warehouse had them within a few days. We plan to stock the UK warehouse with our other titles in early 2026, likely from our US warehouse. This will be yet another “learning experience” in the freight logistics realm.

Another enhancement for certain customers is the availability of books in their native language. In 2025, we released our first French-language book, Royal Navy Rum and London Dock Rum. Christine Lambert, the well-known spirits expert and author, handled the translation of The Rum Never Sets into French. It’s currently available in the UK and EU, and will soon be stocked in our US warehouse.

Playing in Hard Mode

Completing all the above was a huge undertaking, which we did concurrently with an even larger project. We’d long contemplated transitioning our daily lives to Europe, in part for its vibrant rum communities and many rum-related festivals. In 2025, all the pieces came together, and we arrived in France.

[Hot tip for reading this far - between now and Dec. 19th, 2025, use promo code UPSPIRITS to save 15% on all in-stock Wonk Press Titles.]

What’s next? I have several rum and/or drinks-related books in various states of outline or execution. My 2026 goal is to publish at least one of them while keeping you up to date on the latest rummy happenings here.

Early in my rum immersion, I became fascinated by the story of Royal Navy rum. My curiosity was less about its consumption and more about what was in it. It was a decade before I ventured into archival sources to learn the real story. In those early years, all I could find about the navy’s rum was from rum bloggers and the occasional book like James Pack’s Nelson’s Blood.

The common denominator in what I found was that Royal Navy rum was a blend of rums from Jamaica, British Guiana, Trinidad, and Barbados. However, all these regions make a wide variety of rums, so just listing each region does not a recipe make. This didn’t stop a few brands from marketing “navy style” rum based on little more than these incomplete details.

When I later started digging into navy rum records in earnest, I came across additional details, like the following from the Royal Navy’s 1939 victualling manual:

Navy Rum is purchased in the open market upon sample. It consists of a blend of West Indian (mainly Demerara and Trinidad) with proportions of Natal and Mauritius Rums.

While this is somewhat more helpful than a vague reference to ‘a blend of rums from the British West Indies,’ it raises new questions. What are Natal and Mauritius doing here?” And why aren’t Jamaica and Barbados listed? Did countless books and articles have it all wrong?

Yes and no. During the 20^th century, the origins of the various rums in the navy blend changed early and often. However, Demerara rum consistently accounted for the largest share of the blend. But while ratios and percentages are nice, they’re still not a recipe that you could make to exactly reproduce what the navy made.

Finding the exact rums used and how much of each became my personal grail. However, the longer I looked, the more I despaired that a complete recipe as used by the Navy was still in existence.

A Fortuitous Encounter

In September of 2023, a gentleman named Arthur Roberts commented on an article I’d written a few years prior:

I was in fact a storehouseman in the Royal William Victualling Yard Plymouth during the 1950’s and 1960’s and at one time I was in charge of the receipt of strong rum and the subsequent blending and revatting of this before issue to the Royal Navy. I still have in fact my handwritten calculations of the first vatting I did, detailing the amounts and percentages of each variety of rum required.

My eyes went wide as I read it. Could Arthur really be sitting on the recipe I’d spent years hunting? I quickly emailed him and tried to keep my hopes in check as I awaited his reply.

Our initial emails soon led to a phone call. Early in the call, Arthur began reading from his handwritten calculations. I knew I’d found my grail when he read off, “17 casks Demerara P.S.” and “2 casks Demerara C.S.” (P.S. and C.S. referring to pot still and column still, respectively.)

When our interview concluded, I asked Arthur to send me picstures of the pages. What arrived was 10 pages of notes, nine handwritten on yellow paper. My jaw dropped; within those pages were other details I’d never imagined. They didn’t contain the specific marks used, as the navy didn’t label their casks with marks. But when combined with other information I’d found, there was enough detail to make a very strong guess about which rums were used.

Given the importance of these documents, I asked Arthur to have them professionally scanned. A portion of the scans is included here. To be clear, Arthur’s notes represent just one moment in Royal Navy’s 200+ year history. Nonetheless, they are the most detailed account of a Royal Navy rum recipe ever publicly shared.

More of the scans, along with further details about the exact source rums and my interview with Arthur Roberts, can be found in The Rum Never Sets book.

Excerpts from Arthur Roberts Interview — The Rum Never Sets

MP: Which victualling yard did you work in?

AR: Technically, the Royal William Victualling Yard in Plymouth. The Royal William Victualling Yard was a big granite yard, dockside in Plymouth. How­ever, the rum store was at a sub-depot at Wrangaton. [Note: Wrangaton is about 30 km east of the main victualling yard.]

The main depot stores in Plymouth were becoming unfit for modern use; the forklifts couldn’t go on the upper floors because they were wooden. They were gradually moving some stores out to purpose-built outlying depots.

MP: How did the rum arrive at the vatting facility?

AR: We had a supply of rum from the bonded warehouse, and it was brought to us by the appropriate customs officials. When we received strong rum, they would wheel in the barrels, which were marked either Demerara, Trinidad, or Barbados.

When I started in the store, I thought, “This is taking ages,” getting the pi­pette to fill and filling the measure jar. As a young brash boy, I thought, “We’ll siphon it out.” I got a bit of plastic piping and put it in the barrel and took a nice big suck to start the siphon off. You can guess what happened. I took a big mouthful of 130, 140 proof rum. I got caught and spluttered, and every­body fell about laughing. It was my first experience of strong rum. I never did that again!

MP: What information were you given about the rum in the cask received from customs? Did you know what was in each cask beyond just where it came from?

AR: Just the country.

MP: Did the Royal Navy have an official document with the recipe that was distributed to each victualling yard?

AR: I can’t recall seeing anything like that in a manual.

MP: Walk me through the steps of a single vatting.

AR: In the store, we had racks of the different rums from Demerara and Trinidad to Barbados, Natal, and Australia. They were kept separate in different parts of the store.

When we vatted, we first needed seventeen barrels of Demerara rum. So, we wheeled out seventeen barrels, tipped them in the vat. Then the barrels of Trinidad rum; wheel them out, tip them in the vat. Two barrels of Barbados rum; wheel them out, tip them in the vat. There was also a percentage of Natal and Australian, which we had to calculate—it was a small amount.

We had to get the strengths and number of liquid gallons, then work out how much water was required to bring the vat down to navy issuing strength, which was 95.5 [proof] in ten-gallon barrels.

MP: Were the one-gallon packing samples the same as flagons?

AR: Yes. They were earthenware jars, which were encased in wickerwork. We didn’t do many one-gallon jars because I think they only went to submarines. I think the kilderkins would’ve gone to a bigger class of ship in order to get them down the gangways and the stairwells and everything into their storage departments. The jars were filled at a slightly different strength than the barrels. They were normally sealed with the red sealing wax and a stamp put on it—RWY, Royal William Yard.

What About Charles Tobias and Pusser’s Rum?

Some of you may recall that in the late 1970s, the Royal Navy gave Charles Tobias the recipe so that he could make and sell Pusser’s rum. Charles lived for nearly 50 years afterwards, and I was fortunate to interview him in 2020. I did get a few tidbits from him — Port Mourant and two Caronis were in the recipe, but he didn’t volunteer everything, nor how much of each. While the navy’s recipe might still be found in Pusser’s company records, I don’t expect it ever to see the light of day. And with Tobias’ recent passing, I can no longer revisit the topic with him.

A Note for the Coming 2025 Holiday Season

Sharing stories like the above is one of the joys of my career as an independent writer, publisher, and rum historian. Research like this takes time, money, and the occasional miracle.

I left my software development career in 2018 to learn as much as possible about rum and share what I found with fellow enthusiasts. The time I used to spend in a salaried job now goes towards writing and publishing books, as well as creating deep-dive content for this newsletter.

While Rum Wonk is free to read, there are paid subscription options: monthly, yearly, and founder levels. I’m very appreciative of everyone who’s elected to be a paid subscriber. Of course, more paid subscribers help keep my keyboard humming. Hint, hint!

If you’re looking for something with a more physical presence, Wonk Press books make great gifts! Purchasing Wonk Press books directly supports a small company, contributes directly to our bottom line, and enables us to create more books in the future!

Thanks for reading!

Today, I’m looking at Mount Gay’s recently released Silver rum. While I’ve yet to taste the official bottling rolling out to the US, I tasted an early bottling during a 2021 visit to the distillery. Its flavor impressed me, and I asked a Mount Gay representative if it was coming to the US. I was dismayed to learn it was a Barbados market exclusive, so I ferried home several bottles in my suitcase. Four years later, it’s officially hitting US shores, per the brand’s press release.

I’m told that this rum is a distinctly different blend than the now-discontinued “Eclipse Silver.” While the earlier Barbados-only release was at 43% ABV, the US-market bottle is at 40% ABV. Kudos to Mount Gay for making it available in a 1-liter format, saving consumers a bit of money while holding more rum per square inch of shelf space. Mount Gay also announced that it will be available in the UK market, albeit it at 37.5% ABV, and limited to on-premise accounts.

As for the “Silver” name, it opens up a side-quest discussion that helps frame my thoughts on this rum. Let’s jump in!

Revisiting “White” And “Silver” As Categories

When it comes to food and drink, color (or lack thereof) often tells us nothing about flavor. A recipe calling for “yellow cheese” or “red vegetables” rather than more specific ingredients would be roundly mocked. The same applies to rum. A rum’s color (or lack thereof) tells us nothing about what it tastes like. Unaged Jamaican overproof rum and unaged rhum agricole are indistinguishable in appearance but are very different beasts.

Even if we don’t focus on extreme examples like the above, the “white rum” category can confuse even people with extensive knowledge of rum and associated cocktails. Many classic cocktail recipes, including the daiquiri and mojito, call for simply “white rum.” We might consider Bacardi Superior to be a “reference rum” for these sorts of drinks. Havana Club 3, Flor de Caña 4 Extra Seco, Diplomático Planas, and others are also stylistically similar.

However, in countless mixology discussions, rums like Denizen Aged White, Banks 5, Planteray 3 Stars, Ten to One White, and Probitas are frequently cited as “better” than the above-listed rums. While many consider them more flavorful, they are not the same style of rum. Full stop.

“Classic” white rums, epitomized by Bacardi Superior, Havana Club 3, and Doorly’s 3, are single distillery light rums, usually column-distilled, and aged for several years. Afterwards, carbon filtration removes the color, rendering them “silver.” Aging-induced flavors, e.g., vanilla, dominate the relatively subtle flavors that remain.

In contrast, “modern” white rums like Banks 5 and Denizen White are more flavor-forward, multi-region rum blends made mostly or entirely from unaged rums. Most contain a secret sauce of sorts: highly flavorful (“high ester”) pot still Jamaican rum. Intense Jamaican rum has long been used like flavor extract in rum blends, punching up lighter and less expensive rums.

Consider the following rums:

• Planteray 3 Stars

• Banks 5 Island

• Denizen Aged White

• Probitas /Veritas

• Ten to One White

All are “white” multi-region blends with a noticeable Jamaican flavor note. They work well in tropical drinks but are objectively different than classic white rum in style and flavor. Classic white rums rely on aging-induced flavors, while modern multi-region whites favor fermentation flavors, e.g., “funk.”

Where does Mount Gay’s Silver Fit In?

Having teased apart most white rums into “lightly aged and filtered” or the “multi-region blend with Jamaican funk” varieties, where might we place Mount Gay Silver in the mix?

The brand’s press release is insightful:

It is a blend of pot and columns still rums…. While the column still component of the blend is unaged, the pot still portion is aged for two years in ex-American Whiskey casks. The secret to the crystal-clear liquid is double filtration, one of which consists in a filtration through charcoal, which removes the color…

Mount Gay Silver is clearly not a classic Spanish heritage-style white rum, ala Havana Club 3. Every drop of a classic white rum like Havana Club 3 is aged; the ‘3’ is a minimum age statement. Contrast that with the unaged column still rum which is likely the primary component of Mount Gay Silver. The blend is aiming for something different than the aging-forward flavors of classic Spanish heritage white rums.

On the other hand, without Jamaican rum hogo in the fray, Mount Gay’s silver is outside the realm of modern multi-region white rums. Instead, it replaces the usual Jamaican component with Barbadian pot still rum, aged just long enough to round off some rough edges without sacrificing fermentation flavors. Barbados is famous for its pot and column still blends which are decidedly “rummy” without veering towards any extremes.

Mount Gay Silver is well-within this Barbados tradition. Its flavor intensity lies somewhere between the Spanish heritage whites and the heavier multi-region blends. Replacing the boisterous Jamaican tang with Mount Gay’s refined pot still profile creates something distinctive, consciously trading a bit of flavor intensity for something more refined and classically Bajan.

Some recent sad news in the rum world to report today. Charles Tobias, creator and founder of Pusser’s Rum, passed away on Oct. 14^th, 2025, at the age of 91. His passing is particularly meaningful to me as a result of my extensive research into the history of Royal Navy rum, as well as a small personal connection to Charles.

By all accounts, Charles lived a multidimensional life. Born in Canada in 1934, he attended the University of Southern California, earning degrees in Aeronautical and Mechanical Engineering. He subsequently joined the US Marine Corps and flew missions in Vietnam and Laos. He was shot down, escaped, and returned to civilian life to start a tech company in Santa Monica, California. By his own account, he indulged in extravagant living during this phase—a 37-room mansion, multiple high-end cars, and a 57-foot yacht.

Charles later sold all these things and set sail on his boat, spending the next five years at sea —an adventure documented in The Way of the Wind, a film co-starring a chimpanzee and a cheetah. A mechanical failure while sailing near Gibraltar circa 1977 led to his introduction to the Royal Navy, who, in turn, introduced Charles to their rum. The experience inspired him to create a commercial version of the Royal Navy’s rum, utilizing a recipe provided by the Royal Navy. In 1979, Charles launched the Pusser’s brand, which, as part of the recipe agreement, contributes money to the Royal Navy Sailors Fund. Pusser’s later expanded into nautical-themed clothing and restaurants.

Charles eventually sold Pusser’s rum brand but retained Pusser’s other business interests until 2021, when he sold them as well. Pusser’s famously trademarked the Painkiller/Pusser’s Painkiller® name and vigorously enforced it, causing some controversy in hospitality circles.

My connection to Charles Tobias is via Michael Fogg, the person that Planteray’s Mr. Fogg Navy Style rum pays homage to. Michael was a friend who provided invaluable insights into the history of Royal Navy rum while I was researching The Rum Never Sets book.

When Charles approached the Royal Navy to obtain a list of the rums the navy used, they eventually gave him the recipe but also suggested that Charles contact ED&F Man in case they had additional information. ED&F Man is an old-line British company that supplied rum to the Royal Navy for about a century, until the daily ration ended in 1970.

When Charles rang up ED&F Man’s number in 1977, he was connected to Michael Fogg. While Michael was never involved in Man’s rum sales to the Royal Navy, he and Charles struck up a friendship that led to Michael leaving ED&F Man and becoming the Pusser’s brand manager prior to its 1979 launch. Michael worked for Pusser’s for decades thereafter.

When I started researching Royal Navy rum history in 2018, Gary Rogalski, Pusser’s CEO, put me in contact with Michael. Michael seemed a bit suspicious of me at first, but we soon became pen pals across the Atlantic, trading tidbits about the Royal Navy’s rum history and traditions. Michael and I eventually met in person in late 2019, which I wrote about after his 2020 passing.

Michael frequently mentioned Charles in our conversations, but I was completely caught off guard when I saw a voicemail from an unknown number — “Hey Matt! This is Charles Tobias from Pusser’s….”

Charles admitted that he’d asked Michael to “check me out” when we met, and report back to him. My call with Charles was a rollicking, wide-ranging conversation. I was the proverbial kid in a candy store, asking deep, obscure questions, a few of which I’m sure Charles had never been asked before. At one point, Charles alluded to the specific rums in the Royal Navy’s blend. I had a good idea of what they were by that point, but Charles wouldn’t confirm or deny my guess. However, he generously allowed me to record and later publish parts of our conversation as a two-part interview — after removing some of the more sensitive material. Even so, they’re quite fascinating reads:

• https://cocktailwonk.com/2020/07/charles-tobias-part-one.html

• https://cocktailwonk.com/2020/07/charles-tobias-part-two.html

Charles and I communicated sporadically over the next several years. Fast forward to 2025, when I was making the final additions to The Rum Never Sets. One addition was an interview with Arthur Roberts, who blended rum for the Royal Navy in 1963, following a recipe he’d written down and miraculously still possessed 60+ years later. Every historian has their list of holy-grail discoveries. The exact Royal Navy rum recipe, to the gallon and specific marks, had unexpectedly dropped in my lap.

It occurred to me that this recipe would be wonderful to share with Charles, the only other living person I know who has the exact recipe. I was eager to compare Arthur Roberts’ 1963 account with what the Royal Navy provided to Charles in 1977. Unfortunately, a very slow-moving game of phone tag ensued, and I was remiss at times for not giving higher priority to reconnecting with Charles. So, my heart dropped when one of Charles’ friends emailed me a few days ago, informing me that Charles had passed. I was saddened, not just for Charles and his family, but also for missing the opportunity to shed more light on a question of historical significance.

Charles Tobias’ rum legacy is more than creating one of the best-known and popular rum brands of the past half-century. There were many commercial “navy rums” before Pusser’s, but it was Charles who convinced the Royal Navy to share its recipe. Charles was an important bridge between Royal Navy rum traditions and today’s interest in navy-style rums. In hiring Michael Fogg, Charles, without knowing so at the time, helped preserve countless Royal Navy rum stories and important historic records. Finally, Charles’ version and promotion of the Painkiller recipe made it one of the most iconic tropical drinks, served in bars around the globe.

My conversations with Charles are among my most meaningful rum memories. Fair winds and following seas, Mr. Tobias!

On October 28^th, Hurricane Melissa crossed over Jamaica as a Category 5 storm, Jamaica’s largest recorded hurricane ever. News of how Jamaica’s people and infrastructure fared is still trickling in as I write this.

News organizations will focus on the broader issues, but as someone familiar with Jamaica’s rum makers, I’ll share some thoughts on how Melissa might affect the country’s rum industry. Questions about how Jamaica’s six distilleries fared are naturally top of mind. Still, when it comes to resuming rum making, there’s much more to consider beyond any immediate damage.

Distillery Damage

Very early reporting from people on the ground in Jamaica suggests the three easternmost distilleries — Clarendon, New Yarmouth, and Worthy Park suffered relatively minor damage. It’s the three westward distilleries — Long Pond, Hampden, and Appleton — that less is known about thus far. A more comprehensive assessment will likely take several more days, once workers can get to these remote distilleries, fully assess the situation, and report back.

Melissa’s eye crossed northward over Jamaica’s western parishes, passing very close—if not directly over—Hampden Estate. Appleton and Long Pond were a relatively short distance to the east of Melissa’s track. The fermentation and distillation areas of all three distilleries are a mix of old stone/masonry structures alongside others with corrugated metal siding and roofing, easily torn away by hurricane-force winds.

Hampden and Long Pond are Jamaica’s last remaining heritage high-ester rum distilleries, while Appleton is Jamaica’s best-known and oldest rum distillery. The loss of any of them would be a huge blow to Jamaica’s rum legacy. I do know that Long Pond’s column still structure was toppled. However, the Blair column still within the structure hasn’t been operational since 2009.

Jamaica’s two largest distilleries, New Yarmouth and Clarendon, are about 90 km from Mellissa’s closest passage. Their column still areas are relatively modern, having been built or overhauled within the last 20 years. Both were designed to withstand very high winds. Both distilleries also have older structures housing their pot stills and associated fermenters. These structures face a higher risk from high winds. However, early reports suggest these structures at New Yarmouth and Clarendon weren’t seriously damaged.

Worthy Park was the furthest distillery from Melissa’s path and is a relatively modern structure, built in 2005. Worthy Park posted a statement,

In the aftermath of Hurricane Melissa, our thoughts are with everybody affected by this devastating storm. We are relieved to share that Worthy Park Estate sustained no significant structural damage and our team is safe.

While we begin clean-up at the Estate, our attention extends across the island as we support those in the hardest-hit communities and work together toward recovery.

Even so, geography poses a different kind of challenge. Worthy Park is in a valley, usually accessed via a steep, twisting mountain road prone to mudslides. While this road is currently closed, employees can use alternate routes.

The Human Factor

While distillery and supply chain damage are relatively straightforward to assess, the hurricane’s impact on the distillery staff is even more important. Workers may have been injured, lost their housing, or need to focus on tending to their families. Even if a distillery’s equipment can resume operations, it may take longer for the staff to be ready to return to work.

Also, when disaster strikes, distilleries usually first focus on helping their communities. We saw this during COVID-19, when distilleries around the world turned their production to making alcohol-based sanitizer. And when Puerto Rico was hit with a hurricane several years ago, distilleries like Bacardi used their stills to purify water for the community.

Molasses Supply Chain

In times past, Caribbean rum makers solely used molasses from their island’s sugar mills. However, Jamaica’s sugarcane industry has been in steep economic decline for decades. Less sugarcane is planted, and most of Jamaica’s sugar factories have closed. Jamaica’s rum industry is now heavily dependent on imported molasses to augment what’s made locally.

Worthy Park has been the notable exception, using only molasses from its on-site sugar mill—but hurricanes often flatten sugarcane fields. Jamaica’s sugarcane harvest season is starting soon, and very little of this year’s sugarcane crop may be available. And even if some of the cane survived and could be harvested, Worthy Park’s sugar factory would have to be operational.

Jamaica’s distilleries typically hold a reserve of molasses, typically enough for a few months. However, if the molasses terminals where tanker ships unload imported molasses were heavily damaged, the distilleries could exhaust their molasses supply. It’s unknown how much of a reserve each distillery had on hand when Melissa struck.

Aging Stock

Wray & Nephew (New Yarmouth, Appleton) holds Jamaica’s largest stock of casked rum and distributes those casks in warehouses around the island. This helps mitigate the risk of catastrophic loss at any single warehouse.

National Rums of Jamaica (Clarendon and Long Pond) have all their aging stock at the former Innswood distillery, well to the east of Melissa’s track. Hampden and Worthy Park presumably store all, or nearly all, of their casks at the distillery.

Bouncing Back

If a distillery suffers extensive damage, its owners must decide whether it’s financially viable to repair or rebuild. Long Pond faced such a moment in 2018 when a fire destroyed the fermentation hall and rum storage tanks.

Appleton and New Yarmouth are owned by Grupo Campari, a large multinational spirits producer with relatively deep financial pockets.

Long Pond and Clarendon have three owners:

• Sugar Company of Jamaica, i.e., Jamaica’s government

• Demerara Distillers Ltd

• West Indies Rum Distillery (owned by Maison Ferrand / Planteray Rum)

Any large-scale repair or rebuilding would have to be collectively agreed upon by all the owners.

Hampden and Worthy Park are owned by Jamaican families.

Jamaican Rum Availability

If you’re wondering whether to rush out and buy all the Jamaican rum you can lay your hands on, the answer is, “It depends.”

Unaged expressions like Hampden’s Rum Fire are the most likely to disappear from store shelves in the near term. They can move quickly from distillation to bottling and to market, often within just a few weeks or months. If a distillery can’t distill, it will disrupt the pipelines of these rums in short order. This happened recently with Wray & Nephew White Overproof, when New Yarmouth ran into issues with dunder disposal, forcing it to sharply reduce distillation operations.

The aged Jamaican rum supply is less likely to be immediately impacted, as each distillery has aging stock of various durations. A period of non-production can be smoothed out in future years via changes to blends and so forth.

In terms of getting rum to market, Appleton and other JWN products are bottled at the company’s Kingston facility, which I’m told is susceptible to flooding. However, Appleton and other JWN can also be bottled at Campari’s Canadian facility.

It’s worth noting that blenders like E&A Scheer hold a fair amount of bulk Jamaican rum. Such blenders regularly buy from certain Jamaican distilleries for subsequent resale to brands like Smith & Cross, Banks, Denizen, and Doctor Bird. If Scheer’s Jamaican rum supply dwindles, those brands could face higher prices.

Likewise, if a distillery’s ability to make rum diminishes, they’re likely to hold on to that rum for their house brands, rather than sell it in bulk. That could further squeeze private-label and independent-bottler brands.

Fortunately, at least two of the distilleries known to sell bulk rum to Scheer and others appear to be ready to start distilling soon, assuming other hurdles like molasses supply don’t pop up.

Wrap Up

To be clear, I’m not reporting on the specific damage and issues each distillery will face in the coming months—it’s way too early to know, and future reporting will bring these details to light. Instead, consider the above as background about what might play out, along with potential ramifications. As with many of you, Jamaican rum and its people are very dear to me, and I anxiously await further news while hoping for the best.

Within the rum world, Puerto Rico’s Ron del Barrilito is among today’s most misunderstood or polarizing rums, depending on your perspective. While the brand has many fans, including me, the same three questions pop up whenever it’s discussed in enthusiast circles:

• Is it flavored rum filled with additives?

• Is the brand legitimate if they don’t distill it?

• Where does the distillate come from?

Here, I’m adding a fourth question: Is it Puerto Rico’s oldest rum distillery, as many social media posts and news stories claim?

I’ll address each of them below, then wrap up with an excerpt from Modern Caribbean Rum regarding the company’s production operations.

Before we begin, here are the players:

• Ron del Barrilito – the rum brand.

• Hacienda Santa Ana – The Puerto Rican estate where Ron del Barrilito is produced.

• Ron Hacienda Santa Ana – Another brand made at Hacienda Santa Ana.

• Edmundo B. Fernández – The parent company of the rum brands and estate.

Additives in Spirits – A Primer

Virtually all distilled spirits have a long history of “enhancing” their flavor via maceration with fruits and spices and the addition of sweet wines and tinctures. There are hundreds of old books with recipes for “improving” whiskey and brandy:

Rum is no exception. In his 1937 paper, Foreign and Domestic Rum, US Government agent Peter Valaer writes about Barbados rum:

…it consists of mixtures of molasses spirit which were originally distilled at approximately 185° to 190° proof and to which were added ingredients to produce desired types of flavors. The molasses spirits are usually distilled with lime and soda, often in the presence of vegetable roots, coconut shells, and other substances. … There is a tendency to remove as much as possible of the original character due to fermentation of cane products and substitute a new character with added ingredients. … a formula of well-known brands consists of a mixture of distilled molasses spirit varying in proof from 145° to 190°, sherry, Madeira or other wines, often spirits of niter, bitter almonds, and raisins.

Clearly, today’s Barbados rum-making is a far cry from what Valaer described, but the passage highlights that additives in rum are not a modern phenomenon, nor are they limited to Spanish heritage producers.

Certain spirits, including bourbon and Scotch whisky, eventually adopted regulations forbidding the addition of anything other than caramel for coloring. Other spirits haven’t gone that route yet. While many rum producers make rums devoid of additives, the practice of using wines and macerations remains, particularly in the Spanish heritage domain. Producers disclosing all their additives is the ideal scenario, but within the rum category as a whole, not all additives are equally bad. Think “shades of gray,” not black or white. Caramel coloring is an additive, after all.

In the end, what ultimately matters is whether a given rum adheres to the regulations where it’s made and sold. If a spirit complies with all the rules to be called rum, it’s legally rum, even if not to our preferences. I prefer additive-free rums myself, but I also enjoy many rums where I’m fully aware that things like sweet wines are part of the flavor profile.

Barrilito’s Additives

In my interactions with Barrilito, they’ve been upfront about their process. To make Barrilito, the company starts with a very light cane spirit (~94% ABV), which they purchase.

Less than 2.5 percent of that distillate is then macerated with fruits and spices. The exact list is naturally a secret. Afterwards, the macerated rum is blended with the remaining 98% before aging.

Here’s the key point: Per US TTB regulations, rum can contain up to 2.5 percent by volume of “harmless coloring, flavoring, or blending materials.” Barrilito’s macerated rum fits this description, so per TTB’s rules, it’s legally rum, not flavored rum, spiced rum, or a spirit drink.

While this maceration may not be everyone’s cup of tea, many people are quite enthusiastic about it, and the brand has built a loyal fan base. From the brand’s perspective, they might say, “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.”

Source Rum

Just as there’s a long history of additives in distilled spirits, so are producers that don’t distill. Such producers purchase unaged distillate, which they then age and/or blend before selling it under their brand name. In the whiskey world, such brands are referred to as Non-Distilling Producers (NDPs). For instance, Whistle Pig was an NDP until they started distilling in 2015.

In early twentieth-century Barbados, brands like Cockspur, Doorly’s, Alleyne Arthur, and R.L. Seale purchased unaged rum from the West Indies Rum Refinery, now known as the West Indies Rum Distillery. A few well-known rum NDPs today include Bermúdez and Matusalem (Dominican Republic), La Hechicera (Colombia), Karukera (Guadeloupe), and Trigo (Puerto Rico).

It’s often (incorrectly) assumed that Hacienda Santa Ana buys its unaged distillate from its island neighbor, Bacardi. While this may have been true in the past, it’s doesn’t appear to be the case today.

How do I know? Puerto Rico is a US territory, and publicly available US import data show Edmundo B. Fernández (Barrilito’s parent company) importing a large amount of rum from the Dominican Republic, as well as lesser amounts from Guatemala. Some of the Dominican Republic rum came from Alcoholes Finos Domincanos, while much more came from a company called Flexitank. However, Flexitank may be just an intermediary between the actual distiller and Edmundo B. Fernández. The Guatemalan rum came from Mag Alcoholes SA, a large Guatemalan agro-industrial producer. (See Modern Caribbean Rum for details on both these distilleries.)

To finalize one last detail regarding Bacardi, since 2017, Edmundo B. Fernández, Inc. has been owned by a Puerto Rican investor group led by Joaquín Bacardí III. Joaquín was previously the CEO of one of the Bacardi Corporation’s divisions. However, the Bacardi corporation and Edmundo B. Fernández, Inc. appear to be completely separate companies.

Is Ron del Barrilito Puerto Rico’s oldest rum distillery?

Many news stories and social media posts say that Ron del Barrilito is Puerto Rico’s oldest rum distillery, dating back to 1880 or 1871, depending on when you start counting. This predates Bacardi’s arrival in Puerto Rico in 1936.

However, Puerto Rico enacted local Prohibition in 1917, and the US as a whole in 1920. Hacienda Santa Ana didn’t distill during Prohibition and didn’t resume production when Prohibition ended in 1934. Thus, the company hasn’t distilled for over a century.

Now, you might ask, “What exactly constitutes a distillery?” Must distillation actually occur there? Or is just some aspect of rum production sufficient?

It doesn’t really matter here.

Destilería Serrallés, home of Don Q rum, was established in Puerto Rico in 1865. And unlike Hacienda Santa Ana, it resumed rum distillation after Prohibition ended. Thus, I contend it holds the title of Puerto Rico’s oldest rum distillery.

Ron del Barrilito may have specific criteria for declaring itself the oldest, but if so, I’m not aware of what they are.

With all four topics addressed, I’ll wrap up with a relevant excerpt from Modern Caribbean Rum’s Puerto Rico chapter.

Modern Caribbean Rum Chapter Excerpt

When US Prohibition ended, Barrilito quickly registered its trademark and label with the US Patent Office and returned to rum making. However, distillation was no longer part of the operation. Instead, they worked with a distillery to recreate the flavor profile of the rum Barrilito once distilled.

The Fernández family continued to own Santa Ana and Barrilito for another seven decades while its fortunes waxed and waned. The two remaining Fernández family members, the brothers Manuel and Fernando, had no successors. After a year and a half of discussions with former Bacardi CEO Joaquin Bacardi III, the brothers entrusted Joaquin with Barrilito’s legacy. It was Juan’s commitment to continue the Fernández tradition and respect their production processes that sealed the deal.

Joaquin immediately made critical investments to expand operations and grow the Barrilito brand. An influx of USD 12 million was allocated for improvements, including a new visitor’s center, three new 25,000-gallon spirit tanks, 28,000 additional sherry butts from Spain, and a new warehouse to hold all those new casks.

Another element of the revamp was adding new Four Stars and Five Stars expressions to the company’s longstanding Two Stars and Three Stars lineup. Another addition is a 138-proof rum known as Ron Hacienda Santa Ana, which follows an abbreviated version of the Barrilito Two Stars process.

Hacienda Santa Ana Operations

Rum making at Hacienda Santa Ana is surprisingly compact. All essential operations, including aging, fit within a large square building with a courtyard recessed into one side.

Over the years, there has been some misunderstanding about Barrilito’s rum production process. These days, Barrilito is very transparent about how it produces rum, including the process of macerating small amounts of rum with fruit. While this draws gasps of “adulteration” from certain quarters, maceration has a long tradition in spirits making.

The keys to Barrilito’s flavor profile are twofold:

• Macerating a small percentage of each bottle’s rum with fruit

• Aging in ex-sherry casks

Barrilito purchases a custom-made light rum at between 94 and 94.5 percent ABV. While it’s not a heavy aguardiente, it’s in line with the light distillate that other Spanish heritage producers use in their blends.

Less than 2.5 percent of the rum Barrilito purchases un­dergoes maceration. Before maceration, the rum is diluted to around 65 percent ABV and placed into wooden tanks. Dried fruits and spices join the rum in the tank and macerate for around six months. However, this infused liquid is just one aspect of Barrilito’s flavor profile.

A closely guarded company secret is the exact set of fruits, spices, and nuts. Only two people know the exact ingredients. The first is Manual Fernández, Barrilito’s prior master blender and grandson of Pedro Fernández. The other is the current master blender, Cuban-born Luis Planas. Before coming to Barrilito, Planas was Bacardi’s Process Director and Global Rum Master Blender.

When it comes time to blend rum for aging, a large tank is filled with unaged, unmacerated rum diluted to fifty percent ABV. The water Barrilito uses for diluting rum before aging is filtered rainwater collected on the Hacienda Santa Ana grounds. A bit of the macerated rum then joins the unmacerated rum. The result is just a bit over fifty percent ABV and has less than 2.5 percent macerated rum, within US regula­tions for “blending materials.”

The exclusive use of ex–oloroso sherry butts for aging is an­other way Barrilito differs from mainstream rum producers. Each butt holds five hundred liters, about 250 percent of a bourbon barrel’s capacity. While Barrilito uses ex-sherry butts, they are not used as part of a solera.

A quick update today regarding a recent (September 2025) court ruling regarding Jamaica’s rum geographical indication process. To bring you up to speed quickly, in late 2024, JIPO (Jamaica’s Intellectual Property Office) updated the original 2016 GI on several fronts. Here’s an overview of the 2024 changes:

The key point of contention in what follows is the revised GI wording, which makes it clear that aging must occur in Jamaica. Jamaica’s Spirits Pool and J. Wray & Nephew, the Spirit Pool’s largest shareholder, advocated for this clarification.

National Rum of Jamaica, aka NRJ, opposed this modification, citing that Jamaican rum has a long history of overseas aging and that NRJ continues to sell a substantial amount of bulk rum to clients which age the rum overseas. (As a historical aside, much of the Jamaican rum that aged overseas was in the UK, e.g., “London Dock Rum.”)

After JIPO’s 2024 GI revision, NRJ appealed to the commercial division of Jamaica’s Supreme Court. The core of NRJ’s appeal is that the revised GI requirement substantially hinders the company’s ability to sell bulk rum to certain clients, thus creating financial harm for the company.

In this appeal, NRJ is the claimant. The four defendants are:

• Registrar Of Industrial Property

• Shantal English (JIPO Hearing Officer)

• Spirits Pool Association Limited

• J. Wray & Nephew Limited

What’s New

On September 19^th, 2025, the judge overseeing the appeal issued a ruling. Here’s my summary of the lengthy and legalese-laden ruling found on Jamaica’s Supreme Court website:

• An interim declaration rendering JIPO’s 2024 GI changes null and void, pending a full hearing of all points under contention.

• Until the hearing is completed, Jamaica’s Spirits Pool must not accept or process any applications for Jamaica Rum GI certification under the revised requirements of the 2024 GI updates. [I’m not a lawyer, but this is my understanding of the ruling’s intent.]

• Likewise, until the hearing is completed, the Defendants are prohibited from taking any action to implement or enforce the 2024 GI revisions, including informing the public, the European Commission, EU countries, or any other government or international body that the 2024 GI revisions are valid or in effect.

As an aside for those not well versed in Jamaica’s rum industry, while this is technically a dispute between Jamaican entities, there is an international dimension to the proceedings. J. Wray & Nephew is owned by the Italian company, Gruppo Campari. National Rums of Jamaica has three owners, each with a one-third stake:

• Jamaica’s government, by way of the Sugar Company of Jamaica

• Guyana’s Demerara Distillers Ltd.

• France’s Maison Ferrand, by way of the West Indies Rum Distillery

  Summary

The key takeaway is that an appeals court judge has put JIPO’s 2024 GI revisions on hold, pending further hearings before the court. While this ruling seems to side with NRJ’s claims, it is only a temporary pause. The key points of contention between the parties remain and will be addressed by the Commercial Court, rather than JIPO. [Again, I’m not a lawyer, but this is my understanding of the ruling.]

In a previous story, I provided some background information related to Ian Burrell’s recent widely shared post announcing that he is no longer representing Equiano Rum. The story has since picked up steam in the UK drinks trade press, with articles from Drinks International, The Drinks Business, and Harpers Wine & Spirit.

Much of the attention given to this post focuses on this portion of the post:

…it has come to light that the corresponding trademark was NEVER registered in the company’s name but was purportedly registered by a company controlled by another of our founding director & shareholder.

However, the trademark issue is just one aspect of a larger story, which I outlined in my prior piece. Since then, additional information has come out that sheds new light on the broader story.

Recap

To briefly recap where my prior story left off, per public company filings by Equiano Limited, the directors of Equiano Limited placed the company into administration in May of 2025 due to insolvency issues. During administration, an independent outside firm takes control of the company to protect it from creditors while also seeking the best outcome through restructuring, selling assets, or orderly winding-down. In this case, the creditors being protected include The Rum Experience Company Limited, which Burrell owns.

The three Equiano Limited directors who placed the company into administration were:

• Ian Burrel

• Aaisha Dadral

• Amanda Kakembo

Each held approximately 1/6th of Equiano’s shares. However, a fourth shareholder, Oliver Bartlam, also owned 1/6^th of the company’s shares. Bartlam appears at the end of my earlier article:

…in July 2025, Oliver Bartlam, one of the founders and a large shareholder of Equiano, as well as one of Equiano’s former directors, registered a new company in the UK, Equiano Global Ltd.

I found this curious but couldn’t find any more information about this new company, other than its ownership by Bartlam. (Bartlan resigned as a director of Equiano Limited in 2022.)

Rebuttal

The day after my first Equiano article appeared, The Drinks Business published “Equiano responds: ‘Ian was a director throughout, he knew the IP ownership position.” This article doesn’t mention Bartlam by name, but in it, an unnamed Equiano Global Limited spokesperson is quoted:

In May this year, the directors of Equiano Ltd (Ian Burrell, Amanda Kakembo and Aaisha Dadral) initiated an administration process due to a significant funding gap. During this process, it became apparent that the company did not own all intellectual property and trademark rights. The IP had in fact been secured by the company’s design agency, something that all directors, including Ian, were aware of well before administration.

Following this, Ian assembled a syndicate of new investors that sought to negotiate and secure the business and assets of Equiano Limited whilst also attempting to purchase the IP and take full control of the brand.

The administrators [Quantuma], acting independently and in the best interests of creditors, ultimately rejected their proposal to purchase the assets of Equiano Limited and instead accepted an offer from Equiano Global Limited, a company backed by existing shareholders.

In simpler terms, the Equiano Global Limited spokesperson said that two of Equiano Limited’s large shareholders (Burrell and Bartlam) made competing proposals to the administration company (Quantuma) to purchase the company’s assets. Quantuma selected Bartlam’s proposal over Burrell’s investor syndicate.

If this is true, then Equiano Global Limited may now, or shortly, own the Equiano brand and its associated assets. Naturally, there may be more twists in the story still to come.

Be that as it may, the public face of the brand (Burrell) is no longer on board, and the brand’s primary rum supplier has said on social media that it won’t supply more rum to the brand. Likewise, numerous rum bars and rum industry personalities have shared that they will no longer support the brand. It will be interesting to see how this all plays out.

Recently (early September 2025) Ian Burrell shared widely on social media that he would no longer be representing Equiano, a rum brand he was a director of and co-founded. His post included the following passage:

While I am a founder and shareholder of EQUIANO LIMITED, it has come to light that the corresponding trademark was NEVER registered in the company’s name but was purportedly registered by a company controlled by another of our founding director & shareholder.

Therefore, I can no longer continue to represent the Equiano Rum brand and I have retained counsel in the matter.

Equiano is very well-known in rum enthusiast circles, and I’m sure like many others, I was surprised by this and wanted to know more. Having previously used trademark databases for stories like Plantation Rum Becomes Planteray Rum, I learned that Equiano was trademarked in 2020 by Crave Communications, which is owned by Aaisa Dadral, another of Equiano’s co-founders and directors.

During my research, I found significantly more information in the public record regarding the operations of Equiano Limited, the brand’s owner. Almost every new spirit brand faces challenges on many fronts in its early years, and Equiano was no exception. What follows is instructive to those pondering launching their own brand or investing in an existing brand.

To summarize, despite its popularity and numerous awards, Equiano Limited may have operated at loss each year since its 2019 inception. In 2025 the company went into “administration.” A June 2025 publicly available filing with the UK government (AM03 Notice of Administrator’s Proposals) notes:

In the absence of additional funding and having reviewed the projected cash flow, the directors resolved to place the Company into Administration on 13 May 2025.

What this means is that the courts, creditors, or directors of the company appointed an external administrator to run the company. The administrator’s role is to run the company while protecting it from legal action by creditors, as well as attempting to rescue it as a going concern. (For U.S. readers, the closest thing to administration is Chapter 11 bankruptcy.)

It’s also worth noting that Equiano launched shortly before the COVID-19 pandemic, creating additional headwinds for the young company.

Equiano’s Early Days

The UK government filing provides a summary of the company’s history. In what follows, I’ll quote key passages that tell the story, starting with:

The Company (initially, Blue Acorn Limited) was incorporated on 6 March 2019. The Company’s initial funding came from the founding shareholders, three of whom hold a majority shareholding and became directors of the Company.

Further investment followed in April 2019, facilitating creation of the product and an initial production run.

A further round of seed funding totalling approximately £900,000 was secured in late 2019 / early 2020. Further funding was secured from several global rum partners, adding credibility to the business. This funding was utilised to produce inventory and launch the business.

From the public incorporation documents, two of the initial directors and largest initial shareholders were:

• Ian Burrell

• Oliver Bartlam

Funding Rounds

The AM03 filing with the UK government continues:

The Company secured further investment through a strategic lead investor who completed a Series A investment of £1.5m across 2021-2022. They expressed an intention to take all required future investment rounds moving forward and funding was received in sporadic tranches. However, given the Company’s size and that cash outflows at that time were relatively low, the sporadic funding was not detrimental to the business.

Given the amount (£1.5m) and timing, the “lead investor” could be Uncle Nearest Investment Fund, the investment arm of Uncle Nearest whiskey.

Some of you may recall that Uncle Nearest has been in the news recently and is facing a lawsuit after allegedly defaulting on over $100 million in loans.

Financial Challenges.

The AM03 UK government filing continues:

The lead investor subsequently committed a further £2.7m to the business in 2022, taking the full Series B round of investment. Payments again came in sporadically across 2023. By this stage, the Company was operating in multiple countries and appeared to be gaining traction in the market. However, the sporadic nature of continued investment was by now becoming disruptive to operations and growth.

Further investment of approximately £600,000 had been anticipated to arrive in the summer of 2023 but this did not materialise, and the business was thereafter unable to secure further investment .… without additional funds, the business was unable to purchase new stock, grow or support existing markets.

In order to preserve cashflow and protect creditors, in summer 2024 the Company terminated contracts with several sales consultants in the USA and in September 2024 it ceased working with its PR and social media agencies. In November 2024, the Company terminated contracts with the remaining consultants and made two of its three full time members of staff in the UK redundant. At this stage, the Company’s directors began taking advice regarding the Company’s solvency position and its options.

Administration

This brings us to 2025. The AM03 filing with the UK government continues:

The business continued to sell its existing stock in the early months of 2025 in order to repay debts whilst conversations with potential investors continued.

In the absence of additional funding and having reviewed the projected cash flow, the directors resolved to place the Company into Administration on 13 May 2025.

…

The Company’s directors held discussions with a number of potential investors in early 2025 as they sought to secure additional funding that would alleviate their cashflow issues …. discussions with potential investors were unsuccessful and therefore on 28 April 2025, Quantuma was formally engaged to contingency plan for a potential insolvency appointment.

On May 13^th, 2025, Quantuma Advisory Limited took control of Equiano Limited, and followed up with several actions, including:

The Joint Administrators have taken steps to market the business and assets of the Company via the issuance of a sale proposal summarising the opportunity to invest in, or acquire, the business.

The proposal was circulated to a list of 231 potentially interested parties related to the food and beverage industry and was advertised on the Quantuma LinkedIn page.

Below is an image from “Project Celeste,” shared in a June 2025 LinkedIn post by Quantuma. While not explicitly mentioning Equiano, the post describes a company remarkably similar to Equiano, stating:

Opportunity to invest in or acquire a multi award-winning* brand of premium rum with a socially conscious ethos. The brand comprises both dark and light rums appealing to a broad range of higher end consumers. The products are 100% natural with no additives, no sugar, and no spices – aimed at the rum connoisseur.

Following a successful launch in late 2019, the business secured its first investment round. Despite the pandemic, the business managed to grow revenues to £746k in 2022, which attracted subsequent investment rounds. Due to recent working capital issues the company is currently in administration.

The business currently has import and distribution partners in 20 plus countries and has established itself in 5 of the largest markets, including UK, Canada, Germany, US and Italy.

The LinkedIn post also includes unaudited financial results for the years 2021 to 2025, each with yearly operating losses between £479K and £1.3M.

Per the AM03 filing, the brand’s five largest shareholders were:

• Aaisha Dadral (Director, Brand & Marketing)

• Amanda Kakembo (Director, Commercial Director)

• Ian Burrell (Director)

• Oliver Bartlam (Co-founder and former Director)

• Uncle Nearest Investments (Uncle Nearest Whiskey)

The company’s three largest creditors were:

• The Rum Experience (Ian Burrell)

• Crave Communications (Aaisha Dadral)

• Equiano’s primary rum supplier

Regarding the Equiano trademark, the AM03 filing notes:

The Company used the ‘Equiano’ trademark as part of its day-to-day trading. This trademark was initially registered by Crave Communications Limited on 11 September 2019, a company in which one of the Company’s directors and shareholders is the sole director.

It is understood that all intellectual property rights in the registrations, including all associated goodwill, is owned exclusively by Crave Communications Limited.

Discussions are on-going in respect of the use of the intellectual property rights going forward.

Today

As of early September 2025, it’s not publicly known if Equiano Limited and the associated brand have been sold. However, in July 2025, Oliver Bartlam, one of the founders and large shareholder of Equiano, as well as one of Equiano’s former directors, registered a new company in the UK, Equiano Global Limited.

I won’t speculate here about Equiano Limited’s management or the actions of its directors. Everything I’ve included above is either excerpted from UK company filings or other publicly shared information.

Given some recent developments in Tiki rum land, I want to outline some history and perspective regarding the rum(s) to use for a classic Mai Tai. But before diving in, there are two things I need to state up front:

• Make your Mai Tai however the hell you enjoy it. Use whatever rums work best for your preferences.

• The focus here is replicating the “OG” 1944 Mai Tai. I’m deliberately not addressing the Royal Hawaiian and similar style “Pineapple” Mai Tais that arose in the 1950s. They’re different drinks.

With these caveats out of the way, many tropical drink enthusiasts strive to make an authentic, original Mai Tai as close as possible to what Trader Vic created in 1944. What follows below builds on information I’ve presented in prior articles:

• The Essential Tiki Rum Style That Disappeared

• Rhum Agricole in your Mai Tai? Let’s Talk.

• Tiki’s Missing Ingredient: “Martinique Rum” of Yore - Cocktail Wonk

• Gatekeeping the Mai Tai - Cocktail Wonk

Generation Gap — The Tiki Revival

A generation of today’s bartenders (amateur and pro) came of age studying the excellent writings of Jeff “Beachbum” Berry. In his seminal 2007 book, Sippin’ Safari, the Mai Tai recipe specifies:

• 1 oz aged Jamaican rum

• 1 oz amber Martinique rum

The recipe notes, “As served at Trader Vic’s in Havana Cuba, 1958,” a point I’ll return to later.

Now, about that Martinique rum. The same generation of bartenders who’ve read this recipe and its many derivative versions quite reasonably assumed that Martinique rum meant rhum agricole. After all, the readily available Martinique rums on store shelves are rhum agricole.

Key Point #1: Words and phrases can change meaning over time. Commercially available Martinique rum available in the 1950s was overwhelmingly molasses or cane syrup rum rather than rhum agricole. The articles listed above provide historical citations to support this assertion. And no, the commercially available molasses rums of the 1950s were not grand arôme like those used in Denizen’s Merchant’s Reserve. (It is tasty, though!)

Vic’s description of Martinique rum from his 1946 book, along with his rum list at the time, is strong evidence that the “Martinique rum” he used was not rhum agricole:

Today’s bartenders, by following the recipe literally rather than its intent, unintentionally veer astray from Vic’s original Mai Tai. I’m not pointing fingers here, as the recipe’s intent wasn’t well known until recently,

Key Point #2: While the Mai Tai is the focus here, the changed meaning of “Martinique rum” also affects many other Golden Era recipes that also used Martinique rum. Classic recipes like the Three Dots and a Dash and the Donga Punch also didn’t use rhum agricole when they were created. Do what you will with this information.

So Now What Do We Do?

Let’s now stroll down the path of what Martinique rum means in a modern context. In the absence of any commercially available Martinique molasses rum, what are some reasonable substitutes?

I’ve previously noted (here and here) that Martinique’s sister overseas departments, Guadeloupe and Réunion, make a substantial amount of molasses-based rum in the classic French style. Examples include Darboussier and Rhum DBM from Guadeloupe, as well as Savanna and Isautier from Réunion. They are flavorful, yet quite different from Jamaica’s signature rum flavor profile.

In The Essential Tiki Rum Style That Disappeared, I posited that Holmes Cay’s 3-Year Réunion Island Rhum Traditionnel was the first French-style molasses rum to be available in the US at a reasonably affordable price:

For American consumers, it may be the best currently available choice to substitute for a Martinique rum in vintage tiki recipes… That said, I can’t promise you that the Holmes Cay Rhum Traditionnel tastes exactly like the Saint-James, Rhum Charleston, and Negrita that Vic and Don used in the 1950s.

I have pestered Eric Kaye (of Holmes Cay) for a longer-aged version of this rum, along with a splash of caramel. Fingers crossed that we’ll see something like this in the US at some point.

An Alternate Take

More recently, leading Mai Tai enthusiast Kevin Crossman (The Search for the Ultimate Mai Tai) also wrote about this Holmes Cay rum:

… is it the rum you want for a second adjusted formula Mai Tai? No, no it isn’t.
…
So if you’re trying to replicate the second adjusted formula, this rum isn’t it; we suggest Worthy Park 109 as a readily available substitute that tastes like Vic described it.

However, the article later notes:

…Réunion Island Rum Traditionnel is fantastic in a Mai Tai.

In essence, Kevin asserts that Worthy Park’s 109 Jamaican rum is a better choice in a 2^nd adjusted Mai Tai than Holme’s Cay Réunion Traditionnel.

Who’s right? Well, there’s a twist, so read on.

Trader Vic Speaks

In his now-famous 1970 letter titled “Let’s Set the Record Straight on the Mai Tai,” Vic outlines the drink’s evolution from its 1944 creation, which used 2 ounces of Wray & Nephew 17-year-old rum. Vic later switched to Wray & Nephew 15, as the supplies of the 17-year had dwindled.

Even later, in the 1950s, due to the “…end of a dependable supply of the 15-year old J. Wray Nephew,” Vic changed to a blend of Jamaican rums:

• 1 oz 15-Year Wray & Nephew

• 1 oz Coruba or Red Heart

When the supply of W&N 15-Year also dwindled, it caused “… Trader Vic to make private arrangements, in the interest of high quality, to blend and bottle a Jamaican rum under his own label and control.”

Summarizing the above, Vic’s first four Mai Tai iterations used:

• Wray & Nephew 17-year

• Wray & Nephew 15-year

• Wray & Nephew 15-year and Coruba/Red Heart

• A custom Jamaican rum blend bottled for Trader Vic.

It seems clear that Vic really wanted only Jamaican rum in his Mai Tais. Only later did his “2^nd Adjusted Formula” introduce a non-Jamaican rum:

• 1 ounce Trader Vic’s Jamaican Rum (15 or 8 year old)

• 1 ounce Martinique Rum (St. James or Trader Vic’s)

Note: This jibes with the Sippin’ Safari 1958 Mai Tai from the Havana Trader Vic’s.

I know many of you spotted the St. James and thought, “Aha! That’s rhum agricole!” However, St. James produced both cane syrup and cane juice rums well into the 1980s. I’ve tasted 1950s-era St. James rum made from cane syrup. (See image and red underlined text above.) While delightful, it didn’t taste at all like rhum agricole to me.

Key Point #3: Vic’s Mai Tais solely used Jamaican rum until running out of acceptable options. I contend that the 2^nd Adjusted Formula was a necessary accommodation, rather than an improvement on his original rum iterations.

Given this, I wonder why so many people choose an interpretation of Vic’s 2^nd Adjusted Formula when there’s plenty of hardy Jamaican rums available. Why use an understudy when the star performer is available?

Sure, if you have a 1950s-era Negrita, St. James, or Rhum Charleston at your disposal, please try out the 2^nd Adjusted Formula — and invite me over! But in the absence of such rums in your bar, two ounces of a Jamaican rum (your pick) might be a better choice.

This is effectively what Kevin Crossman suggests when asserting that Worthy Park 109 works better than Holmes Cay Réunion Traditionnel in an OG Mai Tai. However, this abandons the notion of using Vic’s 2^nd Adjusted Formula. An ounce of Worthy Park 109 and an ounce of some other Jamaican rum gives you …. two ounces of Jamaican rum! Just like Vic used in the first place!

As for me, I often use an ounce each of Smith & Cross and Planteray Xaymaca. It incorporates rum from most of Jamaica’s distilleries, and the blend is a perfect 50% ABV.

Hopefully, the above has provided some useful historical context and given you a framework for your own rum choices when making Tiki’s most beloved recipe.

What do you think? Share your thoughts in the comments!